The effect of virtual avatar experience on body image discrepancy, body satisfaction and weight regulation intention

Vol.12,No.1(2018)

Abstract
This experimental study aimed to investigate the effect of having a virtual avatar experience on health outcomes in the context of body image and weight regulation. Ninety-three U.S. non-clinical participants (51 men and 42 women) were recruited, who were 18 years and older and had no history of chronic health problems or mental illnesses. Each experiment consisted of the three data collection phases, including the pre-experiment survey, an experience session of a virtual self-avatar, and the post-experiment survey. For the development of the virtual avatar protocol, this study employed 3D body scanning to create a participant’s virtual body model based on accurate anthropometric data, to simulate a virtual avatar closely matched with the participant’s actual physique. Overall, the data indicated an increase in perceived body image discrepancy and a decrease in body satisfaction after participating in a virtual avatar session, and those who showed higher body dissatisfaction exhibited a stronger intention regulated for weight control. Specifically in gender, the statistical results were generally intensified in the female group, but the male group showed a stronger intention to be involved in exercising after virtual avatar experience. The insights gained from this study suggested future directions for research and program development, and urged that practical applications of the virtual avatar approach must be implemented with caution when it uses clinical samples, because its risk-benefit assessment has not been sufficiently investigated yet.

Keywords:
Virtual avatar; 3D body scanning; body image; weight regulation intention
References

Adams, G., Turner, H., & Bucks, R. (2005). The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image, 2, 271-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.05.004

Anschutz, D. J., Engels, R. C., & Becker, E. S. (2008). The bold and the beautiful. Influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake. Appetite, 51, 530–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.04.004

Barnett, M. D., Moore, J. M., & Harp, A. R. (2017). Who we are and how we feel: Self-discrepancy theory and specific affective states. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 232-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.024

Bessenoff, G. R., & Snow, D. (2006). Absorbing society’s influence: Body image self-discrepancy and internalized shame. Sex Role, 54, 727-731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9038-7

Bish, C. L., Blanck, H. M., Serdula, M. K., Marcus, M., Kohl, H. W., & Khan, L. K. (2005). Diet and physical activity behaviors among Americans trying to lose weight: 2000 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Obesity Research, 13, 596–607. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2005.64

Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: A review of the current methodology. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 18-29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.1.18

Cash, T. F. (2004). Body image: Past, present, and future. Body Image, 1, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00011-1

Cash, T. F., & Deagle, E. A. (1997). The nature and extent of body-image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199709)22:2<107::AID-EAT1>3.0.CO;2-J

Cash, T. F., & Szymanski, M. L. (1995). The development and validation of the body-image ideals questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 466-477. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6403_6

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). About Adult BMI. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html

Chang, V. W., & Christakis, N. A. (2003). Self-perception of weight appropriateness in the United States. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 24, 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(03)00020-5

Cornelissen, K. K., McCarty, K., Cornelissen, P., & Tovée, M. J. (2017). Body size estimation in women with anorexia nervosa and healthy controls using 3D avatars. Scientific Report, 7, 15773. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15339-z

Delinsky, S. S., & Wilson, G. T. (2006). Mirror exposure for the treatment of body image disturbance. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 108-116. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20207

Dittmar, H. (2009). How do “body perfect” ideals in the media have a negative impact on body image and behaviors?: Factors and processes related to self and identity. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.1

Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy for eating disorders: A ‘‘transdiagnostic’’ theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 509–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00088-8

Fallon, A. E. (1990). Culture in the mirror: Sociocultural determinants of body image. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 80-109). New York, NY: Guilford.

Fallon, A. E., & Rozin, P. (1985). Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 1045-1056. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.94.1.102

Farrell, C., Lee, M., & Shafran, R. (2005). Assessment of body size estimation: A review. European Eating Disorders Review, 13, 75-88. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.622

Furnham, A., Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body image dissatisfaction: Gender differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise. Journal of Psychology, 136, 581-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604820

Gardner, R. M., & Brown, D. L. (2014). Body size estimation in anorexia nervosa: A brief review of findings from 2003 through 2013. Psychiatry Research, 219, 407-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.06.029

Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(198321)2:2<15::AID-EAT2260020203>3.0.CO;2-6

Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319

Higgins, E. T., Bond, R. N., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 5-15. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.5

Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Social Cognition, 3, 51-76. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1985.3.1.51

Jarry, J. L., & Kossert, A. L. (2007). Self-esteem threat combined with exposure to thin media images leads to body image compensatory self-enhancement. Body Image, 4, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.12.003

Kuo, H., Lee, C., & Chiou, W. (2016). The power of the virtual ideal self in weight control: Weight-reduced avatars can enhance the tendency to delay gratification and regulate dietary practices. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19, 80-85. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0203

Kwan, S., & Graves, J. (2013). Framing fat: Competing constructions in contemporary culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Lynch, M. F., La Guardia, J. G., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). On being yourself in different cultures: Ideal and actual self-concept, autonomy support, and well-being in China, Russia, and the United States. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 290-304. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760902933765

Manzoni, G. M., Cesa, G. L., Bacchetta, M., Castelnuovo, G., Conti, S., Gaggioli, A., . . . Riva, G. (2016). Virtual reality–enhanced cognitive–behavioral therapy for morbid obesity: A randomized controlled study with 1 year follow-up. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 19, 134-140. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0208

McGuinness, S., & Taylor, J. E. (2016). Understanding body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating in midlife adults. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 45(1), 4-12.

Mölbert, S. C., Thaler, A, Mohler, B.J., Streuber, S., Romero, J., Black, M. J., . . . Giel, K. E. (2018). Assessing body image in anorexia nervosa using biometric self-avatars in virtual reality: Attitudinal components rather than visual body size estimation are distorted. Psychological Medicine, 48, 642-653. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717002008

Olivardia, R., Pope, G. P., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychology of Men and Maculinity, 5, 112-120. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.112

Park, J. (2016). Self-determination and motivation for bariatric surgery: A qualitative study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 21, 800-805. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2015.1131996

Park, J. (2018). Emotional reactions to the 3D virtual body and future willingness: The effects of self-esteem and social physique anxiety. Virtual Reality, 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-017-0314-3

Richins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1086/209242

Riva, G. (2002). Virtual reality for health care: The status of research. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5, 219-225. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493102760147213

Riva G. (2005). Virtual reality in psychotherapy: Review. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8, 220-230. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2005.8.220

Rothbaum, B. O., Price, M., Jovanovic, T., Norrholm, S. D., Gerardi, M., Dunlop, B., . . . Ressler, K. J. (2014). A randomized, double-blind evaluation of d-cycloserine or alprazolam combined with virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 640–648. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13121625

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

Ryan, R. M., Williams, G. C., Patrick, H., & Deci, E. L. (2009). Self-determination theory and physical activity: The dynamics of motivation in development and wellness. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6, 107-124.

Schwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2004). Obesity and body image. Body Image, 1, 43-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00007-X

Serino, S., Pedroli, E., Keizer, A., Triberti, S., Dakanalis, A., Pallavicini, F., . . . Riva, G. (2016). Virtual reality body swapping: A tool for modifying the allocentric memory of the body. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 16, 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0229

Shafran, R., Lee, M., Payne, E., & Fairburn, C. G. (2007). An experimental analysis of body checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.01.015

Shokouhi-Moqhaddam, S., Khezri-Moghadam, N., Javanmard, Z., Sarmadi-Ansar, H., Aminaee, M., Shokouhi-Moqhaddam, M., & Zivari-Rahman, M. (2013). A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral Problems. Addiction & Health, 5, 43-50.

Slade, P. D. (1994). What is body image? Behavior Research and Therapy, 32, 497-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90136-8

Slevic, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2011). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in middle-aged women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 617-627. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311420249

Stice, E., & Shaw, H. (1994). Adverse effects of the media portrayed thin-ideal on women and linkages to bulimic symptomatology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 288-308. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1994.13.3.288

Strauman, T. J., Vookles, J., Berenstein, V., Chaiken, S., & Higgins, E. T. (1991). Self-discrepancies and vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 946-956. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.6.946

Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T. I., & Schulsinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish adoption register for the study of obesity and thinness. New York, NY: Raven Press.

Vartanian, L. R. (2012). Self-discrepancy theory and body image. In T. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Vol. 2) (pp. 711-717). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Veale, D., Kinderman, P., Riley, S., & Lambrou, C. (2003). Self-discrepancy in body dysmorphic disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 157-169. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466503321903571

Williamson, D. A., Gleaves, D. H., Watkins, P. C., & Schlundt, D. G. (1993). Validation of self-ideal body size discrepancy as a measure of body dissatisfaction. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15, 57-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00964324

Williamson, D. A., White, M. A., York-Crowe, E., & Stewart, T. M. (2004). Cognitive-behavioural theories of eating disorders. Behavior Modification, 28, 711–738. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445503259853

Zamani, E., Kheradmand, A., Cheshmi, M., Abedi, A., & Hedayati, N. (2010). Comparing the social skills of students addicted to computer games with normal students. Addiction & Health, 2, 59–65.

Metrics

4840

Views

2032

PDF views