The effects of text, audio, video, and in-person communication on bonding between friends

Abstract

Considerable research on computer-mediated communication has examined online communication between strangers, but little is known about the emotional experience of connectedness between friends in digital environments. However, adolescents and emerging adults use digital communication primarily to communicate with existing friends rather than to make new connections. We compared feelings of emotional connectedness as they occurred in person and through digital communication among pairs of close friends in emerging adulthood. Fifty-eight young women, recruited in pairs of close friends, engaged in four conversations each: in-person, video chat, audio chat, and instant messaging (IM). Bonding in each condition was measured through both self-report and affiliation cues (i.e., nonverbal behaviors associated with the emotional experience of bonding). Participants reported feeling connected in all conditions. However, bonding, as measured by both self-report and affiliation cues, differed significantly across conditions, with the greatest bonding during in-person interaction, followed by video chat, audio chat, and IM in that order. Compared with other participants, those who used video chat more frequently reported greater bonding with friends through video chat in our study. Compared with other participants, those who spoke on the phone more frequently with their participating friend reported greater bonding during audio chat. Use of textual affiliation cues like emoticons, typed laughter, and excessive letter capitalization during IM related to increased bonding experience during IM. Nonetheless, a significantly lower level of bonding was experienced in IM compared with in-person communication. Because adolescent and emerging adults’ digital communication is primarily text-based, this finding has significant real-world implications.

Bibliographic citation

Sherman, L. E., Michikyan, M., & Greenfield, P. M. (2013). The effects of text, audio, video, and in-person communication on bonding between friends. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7(2), Article 3. doi:https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-2-3

Keywords

Emerging adulthood; digital communication; friendship; bonding

Full Text:

HTML

References

Show references Hide references

Antheunis, M. L., Schouten, A. P., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2012). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies and verbal affection in computer-mediated communication. Communication Research, 39, 757-780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650211410420

Antheunis, M. L., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2012). The quality of online, offline, and mixed-mode friendships among users of a social networking site. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 6(3), article 1. Retrieved from http://www.cyberpsychology.eu/view.php?cisloclanku=2012120304. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2012-3-6

Antheunis, M. L., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Computer-mediated communication and interpersonal attraction: An experimental test of two explanatory hypotheses. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, 831-836. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.9945

Arnett, J. J. (2001). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood: Perspectives from adolescence to midlife. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 133-143.

Arnett, J. J., & Schwab, J. (2013). The Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults, 2012: Thriving, struggling, and hopeful. Worcester, MA: Clark University.

Baird, A. A. (2010). The terrible twelves. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Chandler, & E. Crone (Eds.), Developmental social cognitive neuroscience (pp. 191–207). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Bargh, J. A., McKenna, K. Y., & Fitzsimons, G. M. (2002). Can you see the real me? Activation and expression of the "true self" on the Internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 33-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00247

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Burgoon, J. K., Bonito, J. A., Ramirez, A., Dunbar, N. E., Kam, K., & Fischer, J. (2002). Testing the interactivity principle: Effects of mediation, propinquity, and verbal and nonverbal modalities in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Communication, 52, 657-677. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2002.tb02567.x

Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1986). Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32, 554-571. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.32.5.554

Duggan, M., & Brenner, J. (2013). The demographics of social media users – 2012. Pew Internet & American life project. Retrieved from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/Social-media-users.aspx

Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends”: Social capital and college students' use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 1143-1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Gonzaga, G. C., Keltner, D., Londahl, E. A., & Smith, M. D. (2001). Love and the commitment problem in romantic relations and friendship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 247-262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.247

Gonzaga, G. C., Turner, R. A., Keltner, D., Campos, B., & Altemus, M. (2006). Romantic love and sexual desire in close relationships. Emotion, 6, 163-179. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.163

Goren, C. C., Sarty, M., & Wu, P. Y. (1975). Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by newborn infants. Pediatrics, 56, 544-549.

Gross, E. F. (2004). Adolescent internet use: What we expect, what teens report. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 633-649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.09.005

Henderson, S., & Gilding, M. (2004). “I’ve never clicked this much with anyone in my life:” Trust and hyperpersonal communication in online friendships. New Media and Society, 6, 487-506. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144804044331

IBM Corp. (2012). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 21.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

Keltner, D., & Bonanno, G. A. (1997). A study of laughter and dissociation: Distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 687–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.687

Lenhart, A. (2012). Teens & online video. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2012/Teens-and-online-video.aspx

Lenhart, A., Madden, M., Smith, A., Purcell, K., Zickuhr, K., & Rainie, L. (2011). Teens, kindness and cruelty on social network sites. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Teens-and-social-media.aspx

Lo, S. (2008). The nonverbal communication functions of emoticons in computer-mediated communication. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 595-597. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0132

Ma, C. Q., & Huebner, E. S. (2008). Attachment relationships and adolescents' life satisfaction: Some relationships matter more to girls than boys. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 177-190. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20288

Manago, A. M., Taylor, T., & Greenfield, P. M. (2012). Me and my 400 friends: The anatomy of college students' Facebook networks, their communication patterns, and well-being. Developmental Psychology, 48, 369-380. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026338

McClure, E. B., Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Zarahn, E., Leibenluft, E., Bilder, R. M., et al. (2004). A developmental examination of gender differences in brain engagement during evaluation of threat. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 1047-1055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.02.013

Messinger, D. S., Fogel, A., & Dickson, K. L. (2001). All smiles are positive, but some smiles are more positive than others. Developmental Psychology, 37, 642-653. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.642

Mol, E. M. M., Krahmer, E. J., Maes, A., & Swerts, M. (2011). Seeing and being seen: The effects on gesture production. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 17, 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01558.x

Parkins, R. (2012). Gender and emotional expressiveness: An analysis of prosodic features in emotional expression. Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural Communication 5, 46-54.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives and digital immigrants, MCB University Press, 9(5), 1-6.

Ray, G. B., & Floyd, K. (2006). Nonverbal expressions of liking and disliking in initial interactions: Encoding and decoding perspectives. Southern Communication Journal, 71, 45-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417940500503506

Reich, S. M., Subrahmanyam, K., & Espinoza, G. (2012). Friending, IMing, and hanging out face-to-face: Overlap in adolescents' online and offline social networks. Developmental Psychology, 48, 356-368. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026980

Seltzer, L.J., Prososki, A.R., Ziegler, T.E., and Pollak, S.D. (2012). Instant messages versus human speech: Hormones and why we still need to hear each another. Evolution and Human Behavior. 33, 42-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.004

Short, J. A., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Small, G., & Vorgan, G. (2008). iBrain: Surviving the technological alteration of the modern mind. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005

Stern, S. T. (2007). Instant identity: Adolescent girls and the world of instant messaging. New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Subrahmanyam, K., Reich, S. M., Waechter, N., & Espinoza, G. (2008). Online and offline social networks: Use of social networking sites by emerging adults. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 420-433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.003

Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior 7, 321-326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295

Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00811.x

Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., & Liszkowski, U. (2007). A new look at infant pointing. Child development, 78, 705-722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01025.x

Turkle, S. (2012). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Preadolescents’ and adolescents’ online communication and their closeness to friends. Developmental Psychology, 43, 267-277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.267

Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Social consequences of the Internet for adolescents: A decade of research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01595.x

Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective. Communication Research, 19, 52-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365092019001003

Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365096023001001

Walther J. B. & D’Addario K. P. (2001). The impact of emoticons in message interpretation in computer-mediated communication. Social Science Computer Review, 19, 324-347. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443930101900307

Walther, J. B., Loh, T., & Granka, L. (2005). Let me count the ways: The interchange of verbal and nonverbal cues in computer-mediated and face-to-face affinity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 36-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X04273036

Williams, E. (1977). Experimental comparisons of face-to-face and mediated communication: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 963-976. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.963

https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-2-3


Crossref Cited-by (38)

The listed references are provided by Cited-by (Crossref service) and thus do not represent the full list of sources citing the article.

1. Children in Changing Worlds
Patricia M. Greenfield
ISBN 9781108404464  9,  first page: 235,  year: 2019  
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108264846.009

2. The influence of technology‐mediated and in‐person communication on student satisfaction: The moderating role of national culture
Maja Šerić
European Journal of Education  vol: 55,  issue: 1,  first page: 118,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12375

3. Telemedicine in Movement Disorders: Leçons du COVID‐19
Eoin Mulroy, Elisa Menozzi, Andrew J. Lees, Timothy Lynch, Anthony E. Lang, Kailash P. Bhatia
Movement Disorders  vol: 35,  issue: 11,  first page: 1893,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.28297

4. Social media use profile, social skills, and nurse-patient interaction among Registered Nurses in tertiary hospitals: A structural equation model analysis
Micah Celine O. Mariano, John Christian M. Maniego, Hariette Lou Marie D. Manila, Ram Cedrick C. Mapanoo, Kerwin Miguel A. Maquiran, John Rey B. Macindo, Lourdes Marie S. Tejero, Gian Carlo S. Torres
International Journal of Nursing Studies  vol: 80,  first page: 76,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.12.014

5. Intimacy, friendship, and forms of online communication among hidden youth in Hong Kong
Gloria Hongyee Chan
Computers in Human Behavior  vol: 111,  first page: 106407,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106407

6. Social relationships and depression during the COVID-19 lockdown: longitudinal analysis of the COVID-19 Social Study
Andrew Sommerlad, Louise Marston, Jonathan Huntley, Gill Livingston, Gemma Lewis, Andrew Steptoe, Daisy Fancourt
Psychological Medicine  first page: 1,  year: 2021  
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721000039

7. Transformation of Adolescent Peer Relations in the Social Media Context: Part 1—A Theoretical Framework and Application to Dyadic Peer Relationships
Jacqueline Nesi, Sophia Choukas-Bradley, Mitchell J. Prinstein
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review  vol: 21,  issue: 3,  first page: 267,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x

8. Depression symptoms and negative online disclosure among young adults in college: a mixed-methods approach
Minas Michikyan
Journal of Mental Health  vol: 29,  issue: 4,  first page: 392,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2019.1581357

9. Facebook use and academic performance among college students: A mixed-methods study with a multi-ethnic sample
Minas Michikyan, Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Jessica Dennis
Computers in Human Behavior  vol: 45,  first page: 265,  year: 2015  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.033

10. Five days at outdoor education camp without screens improves preteen skills with nonverbal emotion cues
Yalda T. Uhls, Minas Michikyan, Jordan Morris, Debra Garcia, Gary W. Small, Eleni Zgourou, Patricia M. Greenfield
Computers in Human Behavior  vol: 39,  first page: 387,  year: 2014  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.036

11. Temporal Closeness Promotes Imitation of Meaningful Gestures in Face-to-Face Communication
Janet Wessler, Jochim Hansen
Journal of Nonverbal Behavior  vol: 41,  issue: 4,  first page: 415,  year: 2017  
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-017-0256-1

12. Digital Transition Outcomes: From Online Reality to Mixed Reality
G.U. Soldatova, E.I. Rasskazova
Cultural-Historical Psychology  vol: 16,  issue: 4,  first page: 87,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.17759/chp.2020160409

13. The Importance of Video Visits in the Time of COVID‐19
Jan A. Lindsay, Julianna B. Hogan, Anthony H. Ecker, Stephanie C. Day, Patricia Chen, Ashley Helm
The Journal of Rural Health  vol: 37,  issue: 1,  first page: 242,  year: 2021  
https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12480

14. Are the Qualities of Adolescents’ Offline Friendships Present in Digital Interactions?
Joanna C. Yau, Stephanie M. Reich
Adolescent Research Review  vol: 3,  issue: 3,  first page: 339,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0059-y

15. iGen: why today’s super-connected kids are growing up less rebellious, more tolerant, less happy – and completely unprepared for adulthood
Sonia Livingstone
Journal of Children and Media  vol: 12,  issue: 1,  first page: 118,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2017.1417091

16. The case for engaging online tutors for supporting learners in higher education in refugee contexts
Paul O’Keeffe
Research in Learning Technology  vol: 28,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v28.2428

17. I hear but I don't see you: Interacting over phone reduces the accuracy of perceiving affiliation in the other
Gentiana Sadikaj, D.S. Moskowitz
Computers in Human Behavior  vol: 89,  first page: 140,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.004

18. Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time
Jean M. Twenge, Thomas E. Joiner, Megan L. Rogers, Gabrielle N. Martin
Clinical Psychological Science  vol: 6,  issue: 1,  first page: 3,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376

19. Social Relations Across the Life Span: Scientific Advances, Emerging Issues, and Future Challenges
Toni C. Antonucci, Kristine J. Ajrouch, Noah J. Webster, Laura B. Zahodne
Annual Review of Developmental Psychology  vol: 1,  issue: 1,  first page: 313,  year: 2019  
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085212

20. HCI International 2020 – Late Breaking Papers: Digital Human Modeling and Ergonomics, Mobility and Intelligent Environments
Xingzhou Guo, Yunfeng Chen
ISBN 978-3-030-59987-4  Chapter 34,  first page: 480,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59987-4_34

21. To text or talk: Does communication modality matter when providing criticism to others?
Drew DeClerck, Susan Holtzman
Computers in Human Behavior  vol: 87,  first page: 109,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.011

22. Technology Makes the Heart Grow Fonder? A Test of Media Multiplexity Theory for Family Closeness
Bhoj Balayar, Michael Langlais
Social Sciences  vol: 10,  issue: 1,  first page: 25,  year: 2021  
https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10010025

23. FaceSync: Open source framework for recording facial expressions with head-mounted cameras
Jin Hyun Cheong, Sawyer Brooks, Luke J. Chang
F1000Research  vol: 8,  first page: 702,  year: 2019  
https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.18187.1

24. Technological metaworlds in travel
T. S. Stumpf, Christopher B. Califf, Joshua J. Frye
Information Technology & Tourism  vol: 22,  issue: 2,  first page: 273,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-020-00166-2

25. 21st century media, fame, and other future aspirations: A national survey of 9-15 year olds
Yalda T. Uhls, Eleni Zgourou, Patricia M. Greenfield
Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace  vol: 8,  issue: 4,  year: 2014  
https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2014-4-5

26. “Listening Enables Me to Connect with Others”: Exploring College Students’ (Mediated) Listening Metaphors
Andrea J. Vickery
International Journal of Listening  vol: 32,  issue: 2,  first page: 69,  year: 2018  
https://doi.org/10.1080/10904018.2018.1427587

27. Path analytic modeling of psychologists’ openness to performing clinical work with telepsychology: A national study
Bradford S. Pierce, Paul B. Perrin, Scott D. McDonald
Journal of Clinical Psychology  vol: 76,  issue: 6,  first page: 1135,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22851

28. Where it Hurts the Most: Peer Interactions on Social Media and in Person are Differentially Associated with Emotional Reactivity and Sustained Affect Among Adolescent Girls
Jessica L. Hamilton, Quyen B. Do, Sophia Choukas-Bradley, Cecile D. Ladouceur, Jennifer S. Silk
Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology  vol: 49,  issue: 2,  first page: 155,  year: 2021  
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-020-00725-5

29. ‘Social screens’ and ‘the mainstream’: longitudinal competitors of non-organized physical activity in the transition from childhood to adolescence
Byron J. Kemp, Anne-Maree Parrish, Dylan P. Cliff
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity  vol: 17,  issue: 1,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0908-0

30. Cultural Change Over Time: Why Replicability Should Not Be the Gold Standard in Psychological Science
Patricia M. Greenfield
Perspectives on Psychological Science  vol: 12,  issue: 5,  first page: 762,  year: 2017  
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617707314

31. Developing and Testing a Scale Designed to Measure Perceived Phubbing
Meredith E. David, James A. Roberts
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health  vol: 17,  issue: 21,  first page: 8152,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218152

32. HCI International 2020 - Posters
Lucía Gómez-Zaragozá, Javier Marín-Morales, Elena Parra, Jaime Guixeres, Mariano Alcañiz
ISBN 978-3-030-50726-8  Chapter 43,  first page: 330,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50726-8_43

33. The Wiley Handbook of Psychology, Technology, and Society
Miriam Bartsch, Kaveri Subrahmanyam
ISBN 9781118772027  first page: 339,  year: 2015  
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118771952.ch19

34. Social change, cultural evolution, and human development
Patricia M Greenfield
Current Opinion in Psychology  vol: 8,  first page: 84,  year: 2016  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.012

35. Staying connected during stay‐at‐home: Communication with family and friends and its association with well‐being
Genavee Brown, Patricia M. Greenfield
Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies  year: 2021  
https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.246

36. Multilevel theory of emerging technologies: Implications of historical transformation for human development
Patricia M. Greenfield
Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies  vol: 2,  issue: 4,  first page: 325,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.222

37. Technology-Based Communication and the Development of Interpersonal Competencies Within Adolescent Romantic Relationships: A Preliminary Investigation
Jacqueline Nesi, Laura Widman, Sophia Choukas-Bradley, Mitchell J. Prinstein
Journal of Research on Adolescence  vol: 27,  issue: 2,  first page: 471,  year: 2017  
https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12274

38. Conversation as an Education Medium for the Age of Distraction - the ‘Art of Range’ Podcast
Tipton D. Hudson
Rangelands  vol: 42,  issue: 1,  first page: 9,  year: 2020  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rala.2020.01.005