Sexually Explicit User-Generated Content: Understanding Motivations and Behaviors using Social Cognitive Theory

Vol.6,No.1(2012)

Abstract
Technological advances by Web 2.0 media and mobile phones have recently enabled users to become producers of their own media content. Users are able to create and share photos and videos with speed and ease. A much different trend has emerged with these new technological affordances, though. Individuals are utilizing this new media and are creating and sharing sexually explicit user-generated content (SEUGC) of themselves. Four hundred undergraduate students completed an online survey to assess their likelihood to create and share SEUGC in the future. Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) was the framework used to analyze the factors that propel this behavior. Results suggest the influence of viewing pornography, sexual self-efficacy, and entertainment and arousal outcomes as triggers and motivators for engaging in this behavior. The model also revealed a desensitization effect towards negative consequences that might occur from creating and sharing SEUGC.

Keywords:
social cognitive theory; user-generated content; sexuality; mobile phones; Web 2.0; cybersex
Author biographies

Joseph M. Sirianni

Author photo Joseph M. Sirianni is a second year PhD student in the Department of Communication at the University at Buffalo SUNY. His interests in exploring the influence of new technology on sexual behavior have contributed a unique area of research to the department. In addition to serving as an undergraduate instructor of mass media and colloquium organizer for the UB Communication Graduate Student Association, he is involved in Project Daytime - a research program devoted to preserving the daytime soap opera.

Arun Vishwanath

Author photo Dr. Arun Vishwanath's research focuses on consumer behavior and consumer information processing. His contributions to diffusion theory included statistical models that predict adoptive behavior and innovator personality, methods to accurately measure the barriers to adoption, and scales for measuring innovativeness, information search efficacy, and related behavior. Dr. Vishwanath has written and presented over two dozen articles on diffusion theory and consumer information processing in leading communication and information systems journals and conferences.
References

Albright, J. (2008). Sex in America online: An exploration of sex, marital status, and sexual identity in internet sex seeking and its impacts. Journal of Sex Research , 45,175-186.

Ballard, S. (1998). Sources of sexuality information for university students. The Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 23, 278-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/01614576.1998.11074263

Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling: Conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.

Bandura, A., & Barab, P. (1973). Processes governing disinhibitory effects through symbolic modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 82, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034968

Bandura, A. (1978). The Self System in Reciprocal Determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-358. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.33.4.344

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1990). Perceived self-efficacy in the exercise of control over AIDS infection. Evaluation and Program Planning, 13, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/0149-7189(90)90004-G

Bandura, A. (1991). Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. Annual Review Psychology, 50, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1

Bandura, A. (2008). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & M. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 94-125). New York: Routledge.

Baumeister, R. (1982). A Self-Presentational View of Social Phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.91.1.3

Basen-Engquist, K. &. (1993). Attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy: A model of adolescents' HIV- related sexual risk behavior. Health Education Quarterly, 20, 263-277.

Bauserman, R. (1996). Sexual Aggression and Pornography: A Review of Correlation Research. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 405-427. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1804_4

Bridges, A. J. (2010). Methodological considerations in mapping pornography content. In K. Boyle (Ed.), Everyday Pornography (pp. 34-50). New York: Routledge.

Byrne, D., Kelley, K., & Fisher, W. A. (1993). Unwanted teenage pregnancies: Incidence, interpretation, and intervention. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 2, 101- 113.

Catania, J., Gibson, D., Chitwood, D., & T.J., C. (1990). Methodological problems in AIDS behavioral research: influences on measurement error and participation bias in studies of sexual behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 339-362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.339

Cooper, A., Morahan-Martin, J., Mathey, R., Maheu, M. (2002). Toward an increased understanding of user demographics in online sexual activities. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 28, 105-129. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230252851861

Cooper, A., Delmonico, D., & Burg, R. (2000). Cybersex users, abusers, and compulsives: New findings and implications. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 19, 5-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160008400205

Cooper, A., Putnam, D., Planchon, L., & Boies, S. (1999). Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the Net. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 6, 79-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720169908400182

Cooper, A., Sportolari, L. (1997). Romance in cyberspace: Understanding online attraction. Journal of Sex Education & Therapy, 22, 7-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01614576.1997.11074165

Cronin, B., & Davenport, E. (2001). E-rogenous zones: Positioning pornography in the digital economy. Information Society, 17, 33-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/019722401750067414

Cummings, L.L., Schwab, D.P., Rosen, M. (1971). Performance and knowledge of results as determinants of goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 17, 526-530. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031805

DiBlasio, F. A., & Benda, B. B. (1990). Adolescent sexual behavior: Multivariate analysis of a social learning model. Journal of Adolescent Research, 5, 449-466. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489054005

Donnerstein, E. (1984). Pornography: Its effects on violence against women. In N. Malamuth & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Pornography and sexual aggression (pp. 53–81). New York: Academic Press.

Doring, N. M. (2009). The Internet's impact on sexuality: A critical review of 15 years research. Computers in Human Behavior, 5, 1089-1101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.003

Eastin, M. L. (2000). Internet self-efficacy and the psychology of the digital divide. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 6. Retrieved from: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol6/issue1/eastin.html

Eastin, M. (2005). Teen Internet Use: Relating Social Perceptions and Cognitive Models to Behavior. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8, 62-75.

Emmers-Sommer, T., Perry, P., Hanzal, A., & Triplett, L. (2006). Love, Suspense, Sex, and Violence: Mens and Women's Film Predilections, Exposure to Sexually Violent Media, and their Relationship to Rape Myth Acceptance. Sex Roles, 55, 311-320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9085-0

Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday.

Goodson, P. M. (2000). Sex and the Internet: A survey instrument to assess college students' behavior and attitudes. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3, 129-149. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493100315987

Guyer, B., Strobino, D. M., Ventura, S. J., & Singh, G. K. (1995). Annual summary of vital statistics. Pediatrics, 96, 1029-1039.

Haffner, D. W. (1987). Adolescent Sexuality in the Media. SIECUS Rep. March/April, 9–12.

Hoult, T. F. (1983). Human sexuality in bio-logical perspective: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Journal of Homosexuality, 9, 137-155. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v09n02_09

Jayson, S. (2008). Study shows many teens, young adults share nude images. Retrieved from: http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=6433047&page=1

Jensen, J. (2008). User Generated Content - a mega-trend in the new media landscape. Retrieved from http://homepages.cwi.nl/~garcia/euroitv2007/tutorials/user-generated-content2.pdf

Jones, S., Johnson-Yale, C., Millermaier, F., & Seoane-Perez, S. (2009). Everyday life, online: U.S. college students use of the Internet. First Monday, 14. Retrieved from: http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2649/2301. https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v14i10.2649

Kalichman, S., Rompa, D., DiFonzo, K., Simpson, D., Kyomugisha, F., Austin, J., & Webster, L. (2001). Initial Development of Scales to Assess Self-Efficacy for Disclosing HIV Status and Negotiating Safer Sex in HIV-Positive Persons. AIDS and Behavior, 5, 291-296. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011300912395

Kegeles, S. M., Adler, N. E., & Irwin, C. E. (1988). Sexually active adolescents and condoms: Changes over one year in knowledge, attitudes, and use. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 460-461. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.78.4.460

Koch, P. B. (1998). Sexual knowledge and education. In R. T. Francouer (Ed.), Sexuality in America: Understanding our sexual values and behavior. New York: Continuum.

LaRose, R., Lin, C., & Eastin, M. (2003). Unregulated Internet Usage: addiction, habit, or deficient self-regulation. Media Psychology, 5, 225-253.

LaRose, R., & Eastin, M. (2004). A social cognitive theory of Internet uses and gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48, 358-376. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4803_2

Lee, D., Im, S., & Taylor, C. (2008). Voluntary Self-Disclosure of Information on the Internet: A Multimethod Study of the Motivations and Consequences of Disclosing Information on Blogs. Psychology & Marketing, 25, 692-710. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20232

Lee, D. L. (2007). A Socio-cognitive model of video game usage. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51, 632-650. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150701626511

Lenhart, A. M. (2007). Social networking websites and teens. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from: http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2007/Social-Networking-Websites-and-Teens.aspx

Liau, A., Millett, G., & Marks, G. (2006). Meta-analytic examination of online sex-seeking and sexual risk behavior among when have sex with men. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 33, 576-584. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.olq.0000204710.35332.c5

Libman, E., Rothenberg, I., Fichten, C., & Amsel, R. (1985). The SSES-E: A measure of sexual self-efficacy in erecticle functioning. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 11, 237-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926238508405450

Lin, C. (2009). Effects of the Internet. In J. Bryant & M. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: advances in theory and research 3rd edition (pp. 567-589). Beverly Hills: Sage.

Lo, V.-H., & Wei, R. (2005) Exposure to internet pornography on Taiwanese adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 13-34

Locke, E., Cartledge, N., & Koeppel, J. (1968). Motivational effects of knowledge of results. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 474-485. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026737

Maheu, M. M., & Subotnik, R. B. (2001). Infidelity on the Internet: Virtual relationships and real betrayals. Naperville, IL: Source books.

Malamuth, N. C. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs in rape myths: Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 299-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(85)90021-2

McFarlane, M., Kachur, R., Bull, S., & Rietmeijer, C. (2004). Women, the Internet, and sexually transmitted infections. Journal of Women's Health, 13, 689-694. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2004.13.689

McKenna, K. G. (2002). Relationship formation on the Internet: What's the big attraction. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 9-31. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00246

McKenna, K., Green, A., & Smith, P. (2001). Demarginalizing the sexual self. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 302-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552101

Mulac, A. J. (2002). Men’s Behavior Toward women after viewing sexually-explicit films: Degradation makes a difference. Communication Monographs, 69, 311-328. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750216544

Offer, D. (1969). The Psychological World of the Teenager: A Study of Normal Adolescent Boys. New York: Basic Books.

Oliver, M. B., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.29

Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. (2008b). Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit internet material, sexual uncertainty, and attidues toward uncommitted sexual exploration: Is there a link? Communication Research, 35, 579-601. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208321754

Quaid, L. (2009). 'Sexting' is More Common Than you Might Think. Associated Press. Retrieved from: http://www.deseretnews.com/article/705349025/Sexting...think.html?pg=all

Ropelato, J. (2006). Internet Poronography Statistics. Retrieved from: http://internet-filter-review.toptenreviews.com/internet-pornography-statistics.html#anchor4

Rose, M. (2010). Naked in cyberspace: Sexting a new tech trend. Retrieved from: http://kbleck.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/naked-in-cyberspace.pdf

Rosenthal, D., Moore, S., & Flynn, I. (1991). Adolescent self-efficacy, self-esteem and sexual risk-taking. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 1, 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2450010203

Ruggiero, T. (2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication & Society, 3, 3-37. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0301_02

Seal, A., Minichiello, V., & Omodei, M. (1997). Young women's sexual risk taking behaviour: re-visiting the influences of sexual self-efficacy and sexual self-esteem. International Journal of STD and AIDS, 8, 159-165.

Seigfried, K., Lovely, R., & Rogers, M. (2008) Self-reported online child pornography behavior: a psychological analysis. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2, 286-297.

Sieving, R., Bearinger, L., Resnick, M., Pettingell, S., & Skay, S. (2007). Adolescent Dual Method Use: Relevant Attitudes, Normative Beliefs and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.003

Tepper, M., & Owens, A. (2002). Access to Pleasure: Onramp to Specific Information on Disability, Illness, and Other Expected Changes throughout the Lifespan. In A. Cooper (Ed.), Sex and the Internet: A guidebook for clinicians (pp. 72-92). New York: Brunner-Routledge.

Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00811.x

Van Wyk, P. H., & Geist, C. S. (1984). Psychosocial development of heterosexual, bi-sexual and homosexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13, 505-544. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542088

Vishwanath, A., & Goldhaber, G. (2003). An examination of the factors contributing to adoption decisions among late-diffused technology products. New Media & Society, 5, 547-572. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144480354005

Vishwanath, A. (2008). The 360 degree news experience: Audience connections to the ubiquitous news organization. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85, 7-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500102

Yoder, V. V. (2005). Internet pornography and loneliness: An association? Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 12, 19-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160590933653

Weisskirch, R., & Delevi, R. (2011). “Sexting” and adult romantic attachment. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1697–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.008

Wulfurt, E., & Wan, C. (1993). Condom use: a self-efficacy mode. Health Psychology, 12, 346-53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.12.5.346

Metrics

3910

Views

5771

HTML views