The Development and Validation of the Online Victimization Scale for Adolescents

Vol.4,No.2(2010)

Abstract
This article outlines the development and validation of the Online Victimization Scale (OVS). The OVS consists of four subscales capturing individuals’ experiences with online victimization across general, sexual, and racial domains. Online surveys were administered in two studies from 2007-2009 to two diverse groups of adolescents ages 14-19 from high schools in the United States. A confirmatory factor analytic procedure was performed in Study 1 and Study 2, and both sets of analyses supported the hypothesized four-factor model for online victimization. Correlation results showed that online experiences associated with each domain of victimization were related to increased depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and anxiety and decreased self-esteem and satisfaction with life. The OVS is a comprehensive measure of online experiences that may be used in research, clinical and educational settings. Results are consistent with other victimization and discrimination measures that show correlations with poor mental health outcomes.

Keywords:
online victimization; racial discrimination; scale; adolescent; Internet
Author biographies

Brendesha M. Tynes

Author photoBrendesha M. Tynes is an assistant professor of educational psychology and African American studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research focuses on the role of the Internet in child and adolescent development with special attention to the construction of race, online victimization, the psychosocial and educational benefits of online interaction and Internet safety. She is also interested in African American children’s psychosocial development in school contexts. Tynes received a BA in History from Columbia University, a MA in Learning Sciences from Northwestern University and a Ph.D. in Psychological Studies in Education from UCLA. She is co-editor of the Handbook of African American Psychology (2009) and has published articles in the Journal of Adolescent Health, the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, The Black Scholar, the Handbook of Children, Culture and Violence and other books and journals. One of her recent articles was the #1 most-frequently read in the Journal of Adolescent Research. Tynes’ work has also been cited in Newsweek, the New York Times online, The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Huffington Post, Woman’s Day, the Tennessean and other news outlets in the US and abroad. She is the recipient of a Ford Pre-doctoral and Postdoctoral Fellowship and was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship from the American Educational Researchers Association. She has received numerous awards including the Spitze Mather Faculty Award for Excellence in 2008, Diverse Magazine’s Top Emerging Scholars Under 40 and UIUC College of Education Distinguished Scholar in 2010.

Chad A. Rose

Author photoChad A. Rose is an assistant professor of special education in the Department of Language, Literacy and Special Populations at Sam Houston State University. His research focuses on unique predictive and preventative factors associated with the involvement of students with disabilities in the bully dynamic and bully prevention efforts within a multi-tiered framework. Dr. Rose received a BS in elementary education and MS in special education from the University of Saint Francis, and a Ph.D. in special education from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He has published book chapters and recent articles in Remedial and Special Education and Educational Psychology exploring the interplay between special education identification and bully perpetration and victimization. Dr. Rose was nominated as the HECSE Virtual Intern, William Chandler Bagley Scholar, Albin and Young Scholar in 2009, and he was the recipient of the University of Saint Francis Distinguished Young Alumnus award in 2010.

David R. Williams

Author photoDavid R. Williams, is the Florence and Laura Norman Professor of Public Health and Professor of African and African American Studies and of Sociology at Harvard University. His prior academic appointments were at Yale University (6 years) and the University of Michigan (14 years). His research has focused on trends and determinants of socioeconomic and racial disparities in health, the effects of racism on health and the ways in which religious involvement can affect health. He is the author of more than 250 scholarly papers in scientific journals and edited collections and he has been ranked as one of the Top 10 Most Cited Researchers in the Social Sciences during the decade, 1995 to 2005. He was also ranked as the Most Cited Black Scholar in the Social Sciences in 2008. He is an elected member of the Institute of Medicine and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Dr Williams has also served on seven committees for the Institute of Medicine including the Committee that prepared the Unequal Treatment report. He was a member of the of the MacArthur Foundation’s Research Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health and also served as the staff director of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Commission to Build a Healthier America.
References

Agatson, P.W., Kowalski, R., & Limber, S. (2007). Students’ perspective on cyberbullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S59-S60.

Benson, I.R., Berson, M.J., & Ferron, J.M. (2002). Emerging risk of Violence in the Digital Age: Lessons for Educators from an Online Study of Adolescent Girls in the United States. Median: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal, 5(2), 1-8.

Boler, M. (2002). The new digital cartesianism: Bodies and spaces in online education. In S. Fletcher (Ed.), Philosophy of Education Society (pp. 331–340). Champaign, IL: Philosophy of Education Society.

Boler, M. (2007). Hypes, hopes and actualities: New digital cartesianism and bodies in cyberspace. New Media and Society 9(1), 139–68.

Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1993). Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods and Research, 21, 230-258.

Burkhalter, M. (1999). Reading race online. In M. Smith & P. Kollock (Eds.), Communities in Cyberspace (pp. 60—75). London: Routledge.

Byrne, B.M., & Shavelson, R.J. (1996). On the structure of social self-concept for pre-, early, and late adolescents: A test of the Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 599-613.

Casssidy, W., Jackson, M., & Brown, K.N. (2009). Sticks and stones can break my bones, but how can pixels hurt me? Students’ experiences with cyber-bullying. School Psychology International, 30, 383-402.

Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233-255.

Chen, S. (2009). Growing Hate Groups Blame Obama, Economy. Available at: http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/02/26/. Accessed March 15, 2009.

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A Global Measure of Perceived Stress. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 24(4), 385-396.

Compas, B. E. (1995). Promoting successful coping during adolescence. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Psychosocial Disturbances in Young People: Challenges for Prevention (pp. 247-273). New York: Cambridge University Press. Daniels, J. (2009). Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75.

Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K., & Wolak, J.(2000). Online Victimization: A Report on the Nation's Youth (No. 6-00-020). Alexandria, VA, National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.

Fisher, C.B., Wallace, S.A., & Fenton, R.E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679-695.

Gies, L. (2008). How material are cyberbodies: Broadband internet and embodied subjectivity. Crime Media Culture, 4(3), 311-330.

Hanna, J. (2009). Hate Groups Riled Up Researchers Say. Available at: http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/06/11/. Accessed September 25.

Harrell, S.P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,70(1), 42-57.

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2008). Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 1-29.

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2009). Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. California, Corwin Press.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.

Immekus, J. C., & Maller, S. J. (2009). Item parameter invariance of the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test across male and female samples. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69, 994-1012.

Jöreskog, K., & Sörbom, D. (2007). LISREL 8.80 [computer software]. Chicago: Scientific Software International, Inc.

Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.

Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s Depression Inventory Manual. Tonawanda, NY, Multi-Health Systems.

Kowalski, R.M., & Limber, S.P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22-S30.

Kowalski, R.M. & Limber, S.P., & Agatson, P.W. (2008). Cyberbulling. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.

Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools. A research of gender differences. School Psychology International, 27, 1-14.

Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D. (1998). Racial discrimination and health outcomes in African Americans. In: Proceedings of the 27th Public Health Conference on Records and Statistics and the National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics 47th Annual Symposium. Washington, D.C.: USDHHS.

Mitchell, K.J., Sabina, C, & Finkelhor, D., & Wells, M. (2009). Index of Problematic Online Experiences: Item Characteristics and Correlation with Negative Symptomatology. Cyberberpsychology and Behavior, 12(6), 707-711.

Mitchell, K.J., Ybarra, M., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). The Relative Importance of Online Victimization in Understanding Depression, Delinquency and Substance Use. Child Maltreatment, 12, 314-324.

Paradies Y. (2006). A Systematic Review of Empirical Research on Self-Reported Racism and Health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35, 888-901.

Patchin, J., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 148-169.

Pinterits, E. J., Poteat, V. P., & Spanierman, L. B. (2009). The White Privilege Attitudes Scale: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 417-429.

Quintana, S. M., & McKown, C. (2008). Introduction: Race, racism and the developing child. In S. Quintana and C.McKown (Eds.), Handbook of Race, Racism and the Developing Child (pp. 299-316). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Raskauskas, J. & Stoltz, A.D. (2007). Involvement in traditonal and electronic bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 564-575.

Rosenberg, M. (1965) Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.

Rutter M. (1996). Stress research: Accomplishments and tasks ahead. In: Haggerty RJ, Sherrod LR, Garmezy N et al. (Eds), Stress, Risk, and Resilience in Children and Adolescents: Process, Mechanisms, and Interventions (pp. 354-385). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research, 8, 23-74.

Shariff, S. (2008). Cyber-Bullying: Issues and Solutions for the School, the Classroom and the Home. New York, Routledge.

Smith, M., & Kollock, P. (1999). Introduction. Communities in cyberspace. London: Routledge.

Smith, P.K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett N. (2008). Cyberbullying: it’s nature and impact in secondary pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 376-385.

Steele, R. G., Little, T. D., Ilardi, S. S., Forehand, R., Brody, G. H., & Hunter, H. L. (2006). A confirmatory comparison of the factor structure of the Children’s Depression Inventory between European American and African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 779-794.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon

Subrahmanyam, K., Greenfield, P., & Tynes, B. (2004). Constructing sexuality and identity in an online teen chat room. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(6) 651-666.

Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J., Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861-872.

Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Tynes, B. (2005). Children, adolescents and the culture of online hate. In D. Singer, N. Dowd & R. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of Children, Culture and Violence (pp. 267-290).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Tynes, B. (2007). Role-taking in online “classrooms”: What adolescents are learning about race and ethnicity. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1312-1320.

Tynes, B., Giang, M., Williams, D., & Thompson, G. (2008). Online racial discrimination and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 565-569.

Wang, J., Iannotti, R.J., & Nansel, T.R. (2009). School bullying among U.S. adolescents: physical, verbal, relational and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(4), 368-375.

Tynes, B., Reynolds, L., & Greenfield, P.M. (2004). Adolescence, race and ethnicity on the internet: A comparison of discourse in monitored and unmonitored chat rooms. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(6) 667-684.

Williams, D., & Guerra, N.G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S14- S21.

Williams, D., & Mohammed, S. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20-47.

Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Online Victimization: 5 Years Later (No. 07-06-025). Alexandria, VA, National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.

Ybarra, M. L. (2004). Linkages between depressive symptomatology and internet harassment among young regular internet users. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7, 247-257.

Ybarra, M., Leaf, P., & Diener-West, M. (2004). Sex differences in youth-reported depressive symptomatology and unwanted internet sexual solicitation. Journal of Medical Informatics Research, 6.

Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004).Youth engaging in online harassment: Associations with caregiver-child relationships, internet use, and personal characteristics. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 319-336.

Ybarra, M.L., Mitchell, K.J., Wolak, J, & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Examining characteristics and associated distress related to internet harassment: Findings from the Second Youth Internet Safety Survey. Pediatrics,118, 1169-1177.

Ybarra, M.L., Espelage, D.L., & Mitchell, K.J.(2007). The co-occurrence of internet harrasment and unwanted sexual solicitation victimazation and perpetration: Associations with psychosocial indicators. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S31-S41.

Metrics

8465

Views

9457

HTML views