Gender differences in videoed accounts of victim blaming for revenge porn for self-taken and stealth-taken sexually explicit images and videos
Vol.15,No.4(2021)
Using video recounts from revenge porn victims, this study explores whether levels of victim blaming differs for the sharing of self- and stealth-taken sexually explicit images and videos. Building on previous work which has demonstrated victim blame for both self- and stealth generated images in occurrences of revenge porn (Zvi & Schechory-Bitton, 2020), the reported study presents an original and ecologically valid methodological approach whereby 342 (76 male, 266 female) participants (Mage = 39.27, SD = 11.70) from the UK watched videoed accounts of real experiences of falling victim to revenge porn, rather than using text based, often fictional, vignettes to attribute blame which dominate studies in this area. All data was collected in 2019. The results demonstrated that significantly more blame was assigned to victims when participants were indirectly rather than directly asked who was to blame for the occurrence of revenge porn, supporting the notion of an unconscious processing bias in attributing blame. More blame was also assigned to those victims who themselves generated the material compared to when it had been acquired without their awareness by a perpetrator, suggesting the cognitive bias to be in line with a just world hypothesis. Male participants were more likely to blame a victim than were female participants, although sex of victim and mode of shared sexually-explicit material (video or image) did not appear to affect levels of victim-blame. Findings are considered in terms of extant research and the need for future work in the area of victim blame and revenge pornography.
Revenge porn; victim blaming; sexting; sex shaming; online victim; technologically mediated sexual violence; real life; victimisation; online abuse
Alison Attrill-Smith
University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
Alison Attrill-Smith, PhD, Senior Fellow HEA, is a Senior Lecturer in Cyberpsychology in the Department of Psychology at the University of Wolverhampton. Her research interests revolve around self-presentation online with criminal intent and digital sexual misconduct.
Caroline J. Wesson
University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
Caroline J. Wesson, PhD is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Wolverhampton. Her research interests combine social, cyber and forensic psychology with a current focus on online behaviours and victim-blaming.
Michelle L. Chater
University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
Michelle L. Chater is a PhD student in the Department of Psychology's Cyberpsychology Research Group. She is investigating victim blaming in incidents of online sexual misconduct.
Lucy Weekes
University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
Lucy Weekes, at the time of this research, was a postgraduate student on the MSc Cyberpsychology within the School of Psychology who contributed to this research as part of a work experience placement.
Back, S., & Lips, H. M. (1998). Child sexual abuse: victim age, victim gender, and observer gender as factors contributing to attributions of responsibility. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(12), 1239–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00098-2
Banet-Weiser, S. (2021). ‘Ruined’ lives: Mediated white male victimhood. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 24(1), 60–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549420985840
Bates, S. (2017). Revenge porn and mental health: A qualitative analysis of the mental health effects of revenge porn on female survivors. Feminist Criminology, 12(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085116654565
BBC. (2018, June 14). Revenge porn: One in three allegations dropped. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-44411754
Bothamley, S. & Tully, R. J. (2017). Understanding revenge pornography: Public perceptions of revenge pornography and victim blaming. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-09-2016-0253
Branch, K., Hilinski-Rosick, C. M., Johnson, E., & Solano, G. (2017). Revenge porn victimization of college students in the United States: An exploratory analysis. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11(1), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495777
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.38.2.217
Burt, D. L., & DeMello, L. R. (2003). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v43n02_03
Buss, D. M. (2018). Sexual and emotional infidelity: Evolved gender differences in jealousy prove robust and replicable. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 155–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617698225
Calvert, C. (2013). Revenge porn and freedom of expression: Legislative pushback to an online weapon of emotional and reputational destruction. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal, 24(3), 673–701. https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/iplj/vol24/iss3/2
Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (1999). Secondary victimization of rape victims: Insights from mental health professionals who treat survivors of violence. Violence and Victims, 14(3), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.14.3.261
Citron, D. K., & Franks, M. A. (2014). Criminalizing revenge porn. Wake Forest Law Review, 49, 345–392. https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/643
Crown Prosecution Services. (2016). Violence against women and girls: Crime report 2015-2016. https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps_vawg_report_2016.pdf
Crown Prosecution Service. (2019). Violence against women and girls report 2018–2019. https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-vawg-report-2019.pdf
Dalbert, C. (2009). Belief in a just world. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 288–297). The Guilford Press.
Daswani, Y. & Pearson, H. (2014). Preventing revenge porn. Keep Calm and Talk Law. http://www.keepcalmtalklaw.co.uk/preventing-revenge-porn/
Davies, M. & Rogers, P. (2009). Perceptions of blame and credibility toward victims of childhood sexual abuse: Differences across victim age, victim-perpetrator relationship, and respondent gender in a depicted case. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 18(1) 78–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538710802584668
Davies, M., Rogers, P. & Whitelegg, L. (2009). Effects of victim gender, victim sexual orientation, victim response and respondent gender on judgements of blame in a hypothetical adolescent rape. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 14(2), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1348/978185408X386030
Eaton, A. A., & McGlynn, C. (2020). The psychology of nonconsensual porn: Understanding and addressing a growing form of sexual violence. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7(2), 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732220941534
Flood, M. (2009). The harms of pornography exposure among children and young people. Child Abuse Review, 18(6), 384–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.1092
Furnham, A. (2003). Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(5), 795–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00072-7
Gavin, J., & Scott, A. J. (2019). Attributions of victim responsibility in revenge pornography. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 11(4), 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-03-2019-0408
Gov.uk. (2016). Revenge porn: The facts. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/405286/revenge-porn-factsheet.pdf
Gracia, E. (2014). Intimate partner violence against women and victim-blaming attitudes among Europeans. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 92, 380–381. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.13.131391
Grubb, A., & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(5), 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002
Hearn, J., & Hall, M. (2019). ‘This is my cheating ex’: Gender and sexuality in revenge porn. Sexualities, 22(5–6), 860–882. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460718779965
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1037/10628-000
Henry, N., Flynn, A. & Powell, A. (2020). Technology facilitated domestic and sexual violence: A review. Violence Against Women, 26(15–16), 1828–1854. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219875821
Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2015). Beyond the ‘sext’: Technology-facilitated sexual violence and harassment against adult women. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 48(1), 104–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865814524218
Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2016). Sexual violence in the digital age: The scope and limits of criminal law. Social & Legal Studies, 25(4), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663915624273
Henry, N., Powell, A. & Flynn, A. (2017). Not just ‘revenge pornography’: Australians’ experiences of image-based abuse. A summary report. RMIT University. https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/not-just-revenge-pornography-australians-experiences-of-image-bas. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58047-4_5
Kleeman, J. (2018, January 18). The YouTube star who fought back against revenge porn – and won. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jan/18/chrissy-chambers-youtube-revenge-porn-legal-victory
Larkin, P. J. (2014). Revenge porn, state law, and free speech. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 48(1), 57–117. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/llr/vol48/iss1/2. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2385620
Lenhart, A. (2009). Teens and sexting. Pew Internet and American Life Project, 1, 1–26. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2009/12/15/teens-and-sexting/
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0448-5
Livingstone, S. & Görzig, A. (2012). Sexting: The exchange of sexual messages online among European youth. In S. Livingstone, L. Haddon, & A. Görzig, (Eds.), Children, risk and safety online: Research and policy challenges in comparative perspective (pp. 149–162). The Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt9qgt5z
McCaul, K. D., Veltum, L. G., Boyechko, V., & Crawford, J. J. (1990). Understanding attributions of victim blame for rape: Sex, violence, and foreseeability. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00375.x
McDaniel, B. T. & Drouin, M. (2015). Sexting among married couples: Who is doing it, and are they more satisfied? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(11), 628–634. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0334
McGlynn, C., Rackley, E. & Houghton, R. (2017). Beyond ‘revenge porn’: The continuum of image-based sexual abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, 25(1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-017-9343-2
McGlynn, C., Rackley, E., Johnson, K., Henry, N., Flynn, A., Powell, A., Gavey, N., & Scott, A. (2019). Shattering lives and myths: A report on image-based sexual abuse [Project Report]. Durham University; University of Kent.
McGlynn, C., Johnson, K., Rackley, E., Henry, N., Gavey, N., Flynn, A., & Powell, A. (2021). ‘It’s torture for the soul’: The harms of image-based sexual abuse. Social & Legal Studies, 30(4), 541–562. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663920947791
MetHq. (2020). Reports and changes of revenge porn from March to May 2017–2020. https://www.met.police.uk/SysSiteAssets/foi-media/metropolitan-police/disclosure_2020/june_2020/information-rights-unit---reports-and-charges-of-revenge-porn-from-march-to-may-2017-to-2020
Ministry of Justice. (2015). Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/428204/cjc-act-circular.pdf
Parker, T. S., Blackburn, K. M., Perry, M. S. & Hawks, J. M. (2013). Sexting as an intervention: Relationship satisfaction and motivation considerations. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.635134
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2016). Bullying today: Bullet points and best practices. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506335957
Patella-Rey, P. J. (2018). Beyond privacy: Bodily integrity as an alternative framework for understanding non-consensual pornography. Information, Communication & Society, 21(5), 786–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428653
Petherick, W. (2017). Victim precipitation: Why we need to expand upon the theory. Forensic Research and Criminology International Journal, 5(2), Article 00148. https://doi.org/10.15406/frcij.2017.05.00148
Pina, A., Holland, J., & James, M. (2017). The malevolent side of revenge porn proclivity: Dark personality traits and sexist ideology. International Journal of Technoethics, 8(1), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJT.2017010103
Pinciotti, C. M., & Orcutt, H. K. (2021). Understanding gender differences in rape victim blaming: The power of social influence and just world beliefs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1–2), 255–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517725736
Powell, A. & Henry, N. (2018). Policing technology-facilitated sexual violence against adult victims: Police and service sector perspectives. Policing and Society, 28(3), 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2016.1154964
Powell, A. & Henry, N. (2019). Technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization: Results from an online survey of Australian adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(17), 3637–3665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516672055
Project deSHAME. (2017). Young people’s experiences of online sexual harassment. https://www.childnet.com/ufiles/Project_deSHAME_Dec_2017_Report.pdf
Ringrose, J., Harvey, L., Gill, R., & Livingstone, S. (2013). Teen girls, sexual double standards and ‘sexting’: Gendered value in digital image exchange. Feminist Theory, 14(3), 305–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700113499853
Salter, M., Crofts, T., & Lee, M. (2013). Beyond criminalisation and responsibilisation: Sexting, gender and young people. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 24(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2013.12035963
Schafer, S. (1968). Victimology: The victim and his criminal. Reston Publishing Company.
Schneider, L. J, Soh-Chiew Ee, J., & Aronson, H. (1994). Effects of victim gender and physical vs. psychological trauma/injury on observers' perceptions of sexual assault and its aftereffects. Sex Roles, 30(11–12), 793–808. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544232
Scott, A. J. & Gavin, J. (2017). Revenge pornography: The influence of perpetrator-victim sex, observer sex and observer sexting experience on perceptions of seriousness and responsibility. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 8(2), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-05-2017-0024
Shaver, K. G. (1970). Defensive attribution: Effects of severity and relevance on the responsibility assigned for an accident. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028777
Sleath, E., & Bull, R. (2010). Male rape victim and perpetrator blaming. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(6), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509340534
Sleed, M., Durrheim, K., Kriel, A., Solomon, V., & Baxter, V. (2002). The effectiveness of the vignette methodology: A comparison of written and video vignettes in eliciting responses about date rape. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(3), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630203200304
Starr, T. S., & Lavis, T. (2018). Perceptions of revenge pornography and victim blame. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 12(2), 427–438. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3366179
Strömwall, L. A., Alfredsson, H., & Landström, S. (2013). Rape victim and perpetrator blame and the just world hypothesis: The influence of victim gender and age. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 19(2), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2012.683455
Stroud, S. R. (2014). The dark side of the online self: A pragmatist critique of the growing plague of revenge porn. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 29(3), 168–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/08900523.2014.917976
Stubbs-Richardson, M., Rader, N. E., & Cosby, A. G. (2018). Tweeting rape culture: Examining portrayals of victim blaming in discussions of sexual assault cases on Twitter. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 90–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353517715874
Suarez, E., & Gadalla, T. M. (2010). Stop blaming the victim: A meta-analysis on rape myths. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(11), 2010–2035. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509354503
SWGfl. (2020, September 17). Revenge Porn Helpline: The busiest year on record! https://swgfl.org.uk/magazine/revenge-porn-helpline-the-busiest-year-yet/
Uhl, C. A., Rhyner, K. J., Terrance, C. A., & Lugo, N. R. (2018). An examination of nonconsensual pornography websites. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 50–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353517720225
Van Den Eekhout, K., & Attrill-Smith, A. (2018). Personality markers in attitudes towards the revenge porn of previously shared and unshared images [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wolverhampton].
Van der Bruggen, M., & Grubb, A. (2014). A review of the literature relating to rape victim blaming: An analysis of the impact of observer and victim characteristics on attribution of blame in rape cases. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(5), 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.07.008
Vonderhaar, R. L., & Carmody, D. C. (2015). There are no “innocent victims”: The influence of just world beliefs and prior victimization on rape myth acceptance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(10), 1615–1632. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514549196
Weekes, L. & Wesson, C. (2017). Attributions of blame in revenge porn: A thematic analysis [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wolverhampton].
Zvi, L. & Schechory-Bitton, M. (2020). Police officer perceptions of non-consensual dissemination of intimate images. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 2148. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02148
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright © 2021 Alison Attrill-Smith, Caroline J. Wesson, Michelle L. Chater, Lucy Weekes