Stress, dependency, and depression: An examination of the reinforcement effects of problematic smartphone use on perceived stress and later depression
Vol.14,No.4(2020)
Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU) is associated with a series of mental health issues including depression; yet, the directionality and underlying mechanisms for these associations are underdetermined. This study investigated the possible reinforcement effects of PSU on perceived stress and later depression and the moderating effect of social support on the associations between perceived stress and smartphone use and PSU. This study further explored the differential effects for separate types of smartphone use. With a sample of 222 college students, we found that PSU reinforced perceived stress especially for people with high levels of stress, and perceived stress fully mediated the association between PSU and depression. Regarding types of smartphone use, we found that perceived stress was associated with both person-to-person and social networking smartphone use. In addition, for people with low to medium levels of social support, perceived stress was linked to increased PSU via social networking smartphone use.
Problematic smartphone use; smartphone use; perceived stress; depression; social support
Aker, S., Şahin, M. K., Sezgin, S., & Oğuz, G. (2017). Psychosocial factors affecting smartphone addiction in university students. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 28(4), 215–219. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000197
Alhassan, A. A., Alqadhib, E. M., Taha, N. W., Alahmari, R. A., Salam, M., & Almutairi, A. F. (2018). The relationship between addiction to smartphone usage and depression among adults: A cross sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), Article 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1745-4
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Aselton, P. (2012). Sources of stress and coping in American college students who have been diagnosed with depression. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 25(3), 119–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2012.00341.x
Bae, S.-M. (2017). The relationship between the type of smartphone use and smartphone dependence of Korean adolescents: National survey study. Children and Youth Services Review, 81, 207–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.08.012
Bae, S.-M. (2019). The relationship between smartphone use for communication, social capital, and subjective well-being in Korean adolescents: Verification using multiple latent growth modeling. Children and Youth Services Review, 96, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.11.032
Beranuy, M., Carbonell, X., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). A qualitative analysis of online gaming addicts in treatment. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 11(2), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-012-9405-2
Billieux, J. (2012). Problematic use of the mobile phone: A literature review and a pathways model. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 8(4), 299–307. https://doi.org/10.2174/157340012803520522
Boase, J., & Ling, R. (2013). Measuring mobile phone use: Self-report versus log data. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 18(4), 508–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12021
Brand, M., Young, K. S., Laier, C., Wölfling, K., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033
Carroll, L. (2013). Problem-focused coping. In M. D. Gellman & J. R. Turner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine (pp. 1540–1541). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_1171
Chapman, D. P., Perry, G. S., & Strine, T. W. (2005). The vital link between chronic disease and depressive disorders. Preventing Chronic Disease, 2(1). www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2005/jan/04_0066.htm
Chiu, S.-I. (2014). The relationship between life stress and smartphone addiction on Taiwanese university student: A mediation model of learning self-efficacy and social self-efficacy. Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.024
Cho, J. (2015). Roles of smartphone app use in improving social capital and reducing social isolation. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(6), 350–355. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0657
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
Cohen, S., Mermelstein, R., Kamarck, T., & Hoberman, H. M. (1985). Measuring the functional components of social support. In I. G. Sarason & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research and applications (pp. 73–94). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5115-0_5
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310
Cutrona, C. E. (1990). Stress and social support—In search of optimal matching. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.1.3
Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view. (pp. 319–366). John Wiley & Sons.
de Vreese, C. H., & Neijens, P. (2016). Measuring media exposure in a changing communications environment. Communication Methods and Measures, 10(2–3), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2016.1150441
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(7), 1562–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007
Demirci, K., Akgönül, M., & Akpinar, A. (2015). Relationship of smartphone use severity with sleep quality, depression, and anxiety in university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.010
Dhillon, R., & Arora, M. (2017). Perceived stress, self-efficacy, coping strategies and hardiness as predictors of depression. Journal of Psychosocial Research, 12(2), 325–333.
Ditzen, B., & Heinrichs, M. (2014). Psychobiology of social support: The social dimension of stress buffering. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 32(1), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-139008
Dobkin, P. L., De Civita, M., Paraherakis, A., & Gill, K. (2002). The role of functional social support in treatment retention and outcomes among outpatient adult substance abusers. Addiction, 97(3), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00083.x
Duke, É., & Montag, C. (2017). Smartphone addiction, daily interruptions and self-reported productivity. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 6, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.07.002
Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030
Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Non-social features of smartphone use are most related to depression, anxiety and problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.023
Ellis, D. A. (2019). Are smartphones really that bad? Improving the psychological measurement of technology-related behaviors. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.006
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219–239. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136617
Fryer, S., Waller, G., & Kroese, B. S. (1997). Stress, coping, and disturbed eating attitudes in teenage girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22(4), 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199712)22:4<427::AID-EAT8>3.0.CO;2-O
George, D. R., Dellasega, C., Whitehead, M. M., & Bordon, A. (2013). Facebook-based stress management resources for first-year medical students: A multi-method evaluation. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 559–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.008
Greenberg, J. S. (1981). A study of stressors in the college student population. Health Education, 12(4), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00970050.1981.10616807
Griffiths, M. D. (2019). The evolution of the ‘components model of addiction’ and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions. Dusunen Adam: The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 32(3), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.14744/DAJPNS.2019.00027
Gutiérrez, J. D.-S., de Fonseca, F. R., & Rubio, G. (2016). Cell-phone addiction: A review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, Article 175. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00175
Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Johnson, B. K., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2014). Glancing up or down: Mood management and selective social comparisons on social networking sites. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.009
Jun, S., & Choi, E. (2015). Academic stress and Internet addiction from general strain theory framework. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.001
Kandel, D. B., Raveis, V. H., & Davies, M. (1991). Suicidal ideation in adolescence: Depression, substance use, and other risk factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(2), 289–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537613
Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014a). A conceptual and methodological critique of internet addiction research: Towards a model of compensatory internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059
Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014b). The moderating role of psychosocial well-being on the relationship between escapism and excessive online gaming. Computers in Human Behavior, 38, 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.020
Kim, D., Lee, Y., Lee, J., Nam, J. K., & Chung, Y. (2014). Development of Korean Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale for youth. PLoS ONE, 9(5), Article e97920. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097920
Kim, Y., Wang, Y., & Oh, J. (2016). Digital media use and social engagement: How social media and smartphone use influence social activities of college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(4), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0408
Kreek, M. J., Nielsen, D. A., Butelman, E. R., & LaForge, K. S. (2005). Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 8(11), 1450–1457. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1583
Kwon, M., Lee, J., Won, W.-Y., Park, J.-W., Min, J.-A., Hahn, C., Gu, X., Choi, J.-H., & Kim, D.-J. (2013). Development and validation of a Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS). PLoS ONE, 8(2), Article e56936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056936
Lapierre, M. A., Zhao, P., & Custer, B. E. (2019). Short-term longitudinal relationships between smartphone use/dependency and psychological well-being among late adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(5), 607–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.06.001
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. McGraw-Hill.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Lee, H., Ahn, H., Nguyen, T. G., Choi, S.-W., & Kim, D. J. (2017). Comparing the self-report and measured smartphone usage of college students: A pilot study. Psychiatry Investigation, 14(2), 198–204. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2017.14.2.198
Leung, L. (2007). Stressful life events, motives for Internet use, and social support among digital kids. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(2), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9967
Lewin, J. E., & Sager, J. K. (2008). Salesperson burnout: A test of the coping-mediational model of social support. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 28(3), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.2753/PSS0885-3134280302
Li, D., Li, X., Wang, Y., Zhao, L., Bao, Z., & Wen, F. (2013). School connectedness and problematic Internet use in adolescents: A moderated mediation model of deviant peer affiliation and self-control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(8), 1231–1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9761-9
Li, D., Zhang, W., Li, X., Zhen, S., & Wang, Y. (2010). Stressful life events and problematic Internet use by adolescent females and males: A mediated moderation model. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.031
Mayhew, R., & Edelmann, R. J. (1989). Self-esteem, irrational beliefs and coping strategies in relation to eating problems in a non-clinical population. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 581–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90042-1
Muusses, L. D., Finkenauer, C., Kerkhof, P., & Billedo, C. J. (2014). A longitudinal study of the association between compulsive Internet use and wellbeing. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.035
Pivetta, E., Harkin, L., Billieux, J., Kanjo, E., & Kuss, D. J. (2019). Problematic smartphone use: An empirically validated model. Computers in Human Behavior, 100, 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.06.013
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurment, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Rotondi, V., Stanca, L., & Tomasuolo, M. (2017). Connecting alone: Smartphone use, quality of social interactions and well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 63, 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2017.09.001
Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.045
Takizawa, T., Kondo, T., Sakihara, S., Ariizumi, M., Watanabe, N., & Oyama, H. (2006). Stress buffering effects of social support on depressive symptoms in middle age: Reciprocity and community mental health. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 60(6), 652–661. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01579.x
Taylor, K., & Silver, L. (2019). Smartphone ownership is growing rapidly around the world, but not always equally. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewglobal.org/2019/02/05/smartphone-ownership-is-growing-rapidly-around-the-world-but-not-always-equally/
Tokunaga, R. S. (2014). A unique problem or the manifestation of a preexisting disorder? The mediating role of problematic internet use in the relationships between psychosocial problems and functional impairment. Communication Research, 41(4), 531–560. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650212450910
Tsai, H. F., Cheng, S. H., Yeh, T. L., Shih, C.-C., Chen, K. C., Yang, Y. C., & Yang, Y. K. (2009). The risk factors of Internet addiction — A survey of university freshmen. Psychiatry Research, 167(3), 294–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.01.015
Van Deursen, A. J. A. M., Bolle, C. L., Hegner, S. M., & Kommers, P. A. M. (2015). Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behavior: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.039
Van Praag, H. M. (2004). Can stress cause depression? Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 28(5), 891–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.05.031
Wichianson, J. R., Bughi, S. A., Unger, J. B., Spruijt-Metz, D., & Nguyen-Rodriquez, S. T. (2009). Perceived stress, coping and night-eating in college students. Stress and Health, 25(3), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1242
Yao, M. Z., & Zhong, Z.-j. (2014). Loneliness, social contacts and Internet addiction: A cross-lagged panel study. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.007

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright © 2020 Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace