Two dimensions of problematic smartphone use mediate the relationship between fear of missing out and emotional well-being

Vol.14,No.2(2020)

Abstract

It has been shown that both fear of missing out (FoMO) and problematic (i.e., excessive) smartphone use (PSU) are negatively associated with indicators of emotional well-being. Moreover, FoMO has been found to be a key predictor of PSU. This suggests that PSU may mediate the relation between FoMO and decreased emotional well-being but this pathway has never been tested. Moreover, in most studies on PSU, the multidimensional nature of this construct has been ignored. The aim of the present study was to address these gaps by directly testing the mediating role of (subdimensions of) PSU in the association between FoMO and emotional well-being. We conducted a cross-sectional study with Estonian participants (n = 426). Using a simple mediation analysis, we found that PSU partially mediated the relationship between FoMO and decreased emotional well-being. Using a parallel mediation analysis, we found that two specific dimensions of PSU were significant mediators of the relationship between FoMO and decreased emotional well-being: Cyberspace-oriented Relations and Physical Symptoms. This suggests that the negative relationship between FoMO and decreased emotional well-being is due to FoMO stimulating (a) online relationships at the cost of offline interactions and (b) Physical symptoms associated with excessive smartphone use. Overall, this study provides a fine-grained analysis of the relationship between FoMO, PSU and emotional well-being.


Keywords:
Fear of missing out; problematic smartphone use; emotional well-being; cyberspace-oriented relationships; physical symptoms
Author biographies

Nino Gugushvili

University of Tartu

Nino Gugushvili is a PhD student in psychology at the University of Tartu, Estonia. Her research interests include digital technologies and their impact on subjective well-being.

 

 

Karin Täht

University of Tartu

Karin Täht (Ph.D. University of Tartu, 2012) is a research fellow (psychometrics) in the Department of Psychology at the University of Tartu, Estonia. Her research has mainly been connected with educational psychology.

Dmitri Rozgonjuk

University of Tartu

Dmitri Rozgonjuk (M.A. University of Tartu, 2015) is a PhD researcher in Psychology at the University of Tartu, Estonia, and a Fulbright visiting student researcher at the Department of Psychology at the University of Toledo, OH, USA. His main interests include the impact of digital device and social media usage on subjective well-being, mental health, and academic outcomes.

Maris Raudlam

University of Tartu

Maris Raudlam (M.A. University of Tartu, 2017) was a master student in Psychology at the University of Tartu, Estonia. This study is based on the data collected for her master thesis project.

Robert Ruiter

Maastricht University

Robert AC Ruiter is a professor in applied social psychology at Maastricht University. His research focuses on the broad application of findings and theory in social psychology and cognitive neuroscience in understanding and changing human behavior in different applied settings, including health promotion, disease prevention, safety management, and sustainable environment.

Philippe Verduyn

Maastricht University

Philippe Verduyn is an assistant professor in social psychology at Maastricht University. He conducts research on emotion dynamics, emotion regulation and social network sites.
References

Adelhardt, Z., Markus, S., & Eberle, T. (2018). Teenagers’ reaction on the long-lasting separation from smartphones, anxiety and fear of missing out. In SMSociety '18: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Media and Society (pp. 212–216). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3217804.3217914

Alt, D. (2015). College students’ academic motivation, media engagement and fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.057

Aluoja, A., Shlik, J., Vasar, V., Luuk, K., & Leinsalu, M. (1999). Development and psychometric properties of the Emotional State Questionnaire, a self-report questionnaire for depression and anxiety. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 53(6), 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/080394899427692

Andone, I., Błaszkiewicz, K., Eibes, M., Trendafilov, B., Markowetz, A., & Montag, C. (2016). How age and gender affect smartphone usage. In UbiComp '16: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing: Adjunct (pp. 9–12). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2968219.2971451

Ashton, J. J., & Beattie, R. M. (2019). Screen time in children and adolescents: Is there evidence to guide parents and policy? The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 3(5), 292–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30062-8

Augner, C., & Hacker, G. W. (2012). Associations between problematic mobile phone use and psychological parameters in young adults. International Journal of Public Health, 57(2), 437–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-011-0234-z

Baker, Z. G., Krieger, H., & LeRoy, A. S. (2016). Fear of missing out: Relationships with depression, mindfulness, and physical symptoms. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(3), 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000075

Barkan, R. (2019, December 23). The smartphone is our era’s cigarette – and just as hard to quit. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/dec/23/smartphone-techology-iphone-mobile-cigarettes

Barker, E. (2016, June 7). This is the best way to overcome fear of missing out. Time. https://time.com/4358140/overcome-fomo/

Billieux, J., Maurage, P., Lopez-Fernandez, O., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Can disordered mobile phone use be considered a behavioral sddiction? An update on current evidence and a comprehensive model for future research. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y

Billieux, J., Philippot, P., Schmid, C., Maurage, P., De Mol, J., & Van der Linden, M. (2015). Is dysfunctional use of the mobile phone a behavioural addiction? Confronting symptom-based versus process-based approaches. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 22(5), 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1910

Błachnio, A., & Przepiórka, A. (2018). Facebook intrusion, fear of missing out, narcissism, and life satisfaction: A cross-sectional study. Psychiatry Research, 259, 514–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.11.012

Blackwell, D., Leaman, C., Tramposch, R., Osborne, C., & Liss, M. (2017). Extraversion, neuroticism, attachment style and fear of missing out as predictors of social media use and addiction. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.039

Brand, M., Wegmann, E., Stark, R., Müller, A., Wölfling, K., Robbins, T. W., & Potenza, M. N. (2019). The Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model for addictive behaviors: Update, generalization to addictive behaviors beyond internet-use disorders, and specification of the process character of addictive behaviors. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 104, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.032

Brand, M., Young, K. S., Laier, C., Wölfling, K., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033

Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Press.

Browne, B. L., Aruguete, M. S., McCutcheon Lynn E, & Medina, A. M. (2018). Social and emotional correlates of the fear of missing out. North American Journal of Psychology, 20(3), 341–354.

Brueck, H., & Lee, S. (2018, March 24). Why our phones are making us miserable: Happiness isn't the same thing as pleasure, and our brain knows it. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/why-our-phones-are-making-us-miserable-pleasure-isnt-happiness-2018-3?international=true&r=US&IR=T

Burnell, K., George, M. J., Vollet, J. W., Ehrenreich, S. E., & Underwood, M. K. (2019). Passive social networking site use and well-being: The mediating roles of social comparison and the fear of missing out. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 13(3), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.5817/cp2019-3-5

Camacho, E., LoPresti, M., Appelboom, G., Dumont, E. L. P., Taylor, B., & Connoly, E. S. (2014). The ubiquitous role of smartphones in mobile health. Biometrics & Biostatistics International Journal, 1(1), 14–19. https://doi.org/10.15406/bbij.2014.01.00004

Canadian Paediatric Society, Digital Health Task Force. (2017). Screen time and young children: Promoting health and development in a digital world. Paediatrics & Child Health, 22(8), 461–468. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxx123

Caunt, B. S., Franklin, J., Brodaty, N. E., & Brodaty, H. (2013). Exploring the causes of subjective well-being: A content analysis of peoples’ recipes for long-term happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(2), 475–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9339-1

Chan, M. (2015). Mobile phones and the good life: Examining the relationships among mobile use, social capital and subjective well-being. New Media & Society, 17(1), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813516836

Chassiakos, Y. R., Radesky, J., Christakis, D., Moreno, M. A., Cross, C., & Council on Communications and Media. (2016). Children and adolescents and digital media. Pediatrics, 138(5), Article e20162593. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2593

Chen, J., Liang, Y., Mai, C., Zhong, X., & Qu, C. (2016). General deficit in inhibitory control of excessive smartphone users: Evidence from an event-related potential study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00511

Ching, S. M., Yee, A., Ramachandran, V., Lim, S. M. S., Sulaiman, W. A. W., Foo, Y. L., & Hoo, F. K. (2015). Validation of a Malay version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale among medical students in Malaysia. PLoS ONE, 10(10), Article e0139337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139337

Choi, S.-W., Kim, D.-J., Choi, J.-S., Ahn, H., Choi, E.-J., Song, W.-Y., Kim, S., & Youn, H. (2015). Comparison of risk and protective factors associated with smartphone addiction and Internet addiction. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(4), 308–314. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.043

Chotpitayasunondh, V., & Douglas, K. M. (2016). How “phubbing” becomes the norm: The antecedents and consequences of snubbing via smartphone. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.018

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587

ComScore. (2017, March 31). Mobile matures as the cross-platform era emerges. https://www.comscore.com/Insights/Blog/Mobile-Matures-as-the-Cross-Platform-Era-Emerges

Contractor, A. A., Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., & Elhai, J. D. (2017). PTSD’s relation with problematic smartphone use: Mediating role of impulsivity. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.018

Darcin, A. E., Noyan, C., Nurmedov, S., Yilmaz, O., & Dilbaz, N. (2015). Smartphone addiction in relation with social anxiety and loneliness among university students in Turkey. European Psychiatry, 30(Suppl. 1), 505. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(15)30398-9

Davie, M., & Firth, A. (2019). The health impacts of screen time: A guide for clinicians and parents. Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health. https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/resources/health-impacts-screen-time-guide-clinicians-parents

Demirci, K., Akgönül, M., & Akpinar, A. (2015). Relationship of smartphone use severity with sleep quality, depression, and anxiety in university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.010

Dhir, A., Yossatorn, Y., Kaur, P., & Chen, S. (2018). Online social media fatigue and psychological wellbeing—A study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, fatigue, anxiety and depression. International Journal of Information Management, 40, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.012

Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo-Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well-being influences health, and future needed research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13(1), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00415

Ding, D., & Li, J. (2017). Smartphone overuse – A growing public health issue. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 7(1), Article 289. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0487.1000289

Dobewall, H., Tark, R., & Aavik, T. (2018). Health as a value and its association with health-related quality of life, mental health, physical health, and subjective well-being. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 13(4), 859–872. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-017-9563-2

Duke, É., & Montag, C. (2017). Smartphone addiction, daily interruptions and self-reported productivity. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 6, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.07.002

Eid, M., & Larsen, R. J. (Eds.). (2008). The science of subjective well-being. Guilford Press.

Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030

Elhai, J. D., Hall, B. J., Levine, J. C., & Dvorak, R. D. (2017). Types of smartphone usage and relations with problematic smartphone behaviors: The role of content consumption vs. social smartphone use. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 11(2), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2017-2-3

Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Alghraibeh, A. M., Alafnan, A. A., Aldraiweesh, A. A., & Hall, B. J. (2018). Fear of missing out: Testing relationships with negative affectivity, online social engagement, and problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 89, 289–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.020

Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2016). Fear of missing out, need for touch, anxiety and depression are related to problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 509–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.079

Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Non-social features of smartphone use are most related to depression, anxiety and problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.023

Elhai, J. D., Rozgonjuk, D., Liu, T., & Yang, H. (2020). Fear of missing out predicts repeated measurements of greater negative affect using experience sampling methodology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 262, 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.026

Elhai, J. D., Rozgonjuk, D., Yildirim, C., Alghraibeh, A. M., & Alafnan, A. A. (2019). Worry and anger are associated with latent classes of problematic smartphone use severity among college students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 246, 209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.047

Elhai, J. D., Tiamiyu, M., & Weeks, J. (2018). Depression and social anxiety in relation to problematic smartphone use: The prominent role of rumination. Internet Research, 28(2), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1108/intr-01-2017-0019

Elhai, J. D., Vasquez, J. K., Lustgarten, S. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2018). Proneness to boredom mediates relationships between problematic smartphone use with depression and anxiety severity. Social Science Computer Review, 36(6), 707–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317741087

Franchina, V., Vanden Abeele, M., Van Rooij, A. J., Lo Coco, G., & De Marez, L. (2018). Fear of missing out as a predictor of problematic social media use and phubbing behavior among Flemish adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10), Article 2319. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102319

Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13(2), 172–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00431

Godwin-Jones, R. (2011). Emerging technologies: Mobile apps for language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 15(2), 2–11. http://dx.doi.org/10125/44244

Guo, N., Wang, M. P., Luk, T. T., Ho, S. Y., Fong, D. Y. T., Chan, S. S.-c., & Lam, T. H. (2019). The association of problematic smartphone use with family well-being mediated by family communication in Chinese adults: A population-based study. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 8(3), 412–419. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.39

Harwood, J., Dooley, J. J., Scott, A. J., & Joiner, R. (2014). Constantly connected – The effects of smart-devices on mental health. Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.006

Heller, N. (2017, December 11). Estonia, the digital republic. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/12/18/estonia-the-digital-republic

Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.

Hu, L.-t., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

Hussain, Z., Griffiths, M. D., & Sheffield, D. (2017). An investigation into problematic smartphone use: The role of narcissism, anxiety, and personality factors. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(3), 378–386. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.052

Inal, E. E., Demirci, K., Çetintürk, A., Akgönül, M., & Savaş, S. (2015). Effects of smartphone overuse on hand function, pinch strength, and the median nerve. Muscle & Nerve, 52(2), 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.24695

Kaare, P.-R., Mõttus, R., & Konstabel, K. (2009). Pathological gambling in Estonia: Relationships with personality, self-esteem, emotional states and cognitive ability. Journal of Gambling Studies, 25(3), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9119-y

Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. PNAS, 107(38), 16489–16493. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1011492107

Karelson, M., Silm, H., & Kingo, K. (2013). Quality of life and emotional state in vitiligo in an Estonian sample: Comparison with psoriasis and healthy controls. Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 93(4), 446–450. https://doi.org/10.2340/00015555-1520

Kim, D., Lee, Y., Lee, J., Nam, J. E. K., & Chung, Y. (2014). Development of Korean Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale for youth. PLoS ONE, 9(5), Article e97920. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097920

Kim, H.-J., Min, J.-Y., Kim, H.-J., & Min, K.-B. (2019). Association between psychological and self-assessed health status and smartphone overuse among Korean college students. Journal of Mental Health, 28(1), 11–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2017.1370641

Kircaburun, K., Griffiths, M. D., Şahin, F., Bahtiyar, M., Atmaca, T., & Tosuntaş, Ş. B. (2020). The mediating role of self/everyday creativity and depression on the relationship between creative personality traits and problematic social media use among emerging adults. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 18(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-9938-0

Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017–1031. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.9.1017

Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., Shablack, H., Jonides, J., & Ybarra, O. (2013). Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS ONE, 8(8), Article e69841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841

Kwon, M., Lee, J.-Y., Won, W.-Y., Park, J.-W., Min, J.-A., Hahn, C., Gu, X., Choi, J.-H., & Kim, D.-J. (2013). Development and validation of a Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS). PLoS ONE, 8(2), Article e56936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056936

Lai, C., Altavilla, D., Ronconi, A., & Aceto, P. (2016). Fear of missing out (FOMO) is associated with activation of the right middle temporal gyrus during inclusion social cue. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 516–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.072

Lamers, S. M. A., Bolier, L., Westerhof, G. J., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012). The impact of emotional well-being on long-term recovery and survival in physical illness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35(5), 538–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-011-9379-8

Larsen, R. (2009). The contributions of positive and negative affect to emotional well-being. Psihologijske Teme, 18(2), 247–266.

Lee, E. B. (2015). Too much information: Heavy smartphone and Facebook utilization by African American young adults. Journal of Black Studies, 46(1), 44–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934714557034

Lee, S., Kim, H. J., Choi, H. G., & Yoo, Y. S. (2018). Smartphone addiction and interpersonal competence of nursing students. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 47(3), 342–349. http://ijph.tums.ac.ir/index.php/ijph/article/view/12680

Lee, Y.-K., Chang, C.-T., Lin, Y., & Cheng, Z.-H. (2014). The dark side of smartphone usage: Psychological traits, compulsive behavior and technostress. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHB.2013.10.047

Lemola, S., Perkinson-Gloor, N., Brand, S., Dewald-Kaufmann, J. F., & Grob, A. (2015). Adolescents’ electronic media use at night, sleep disturbance, and depressive symptoms in the smartphone age. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(2), 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0176-x

Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E., & Karpinski, A. C. (2014). The relationship between cell phone use, academic performance, anxiety, and satisfaction with life in college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.049

Lepp, A., Li, J., & Barkley, J. E. (2016). College students’ cell phone use and attachment to parents and peers. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.021

Lin, Y.-H., Chang, L.-R., Lee, Y.-H., Tseng, H.-W., Kuo, T. B. J., & Chen, S.-H. (2014). Development and validation of the Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI). PLoS ONE, 9(6), Article e98312. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098312

Milyavskaya, M., Saffran, M., Hope, N., & Koestner, R. (2018). Fear of missing out: Prevalence, dynamics, and consequences of experiencing FOMO. Motivation and Emotion, 42(5), 725–737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9683-5

Mîndrilă, D. (2010). Maximum likelihood (ML) and diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) estimation procedures: A comparison of estimation bias with ordinal and multivariate non-normal data. International Journal for Digital Society, 1(1), 60–66. https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2010.0010

Nie, N. H. (2001). Sociability, interpersonal relations, and the Internet: Reconciling conflicting findings. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 420–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640121957277

Oberst, U., Wegmann, E., Stodt, B., Brand, M., & Chamarro, A. (2017). Negative consequences from heavy social networking in adolescents: The mediating role of fear of missing out. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008

Ofcom. (2018). A decade of digital dependency. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/decade-of-digital-dependency

Ööpik, P., Aluoja, A., Kalda, R., & Maaroos, H.-I. (2006). Screening for depression in primary care. Family Practice, 23(6), 693–698. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cml052

Orben, A. (2020). Teenagers, screens and social media: A narrative review of reviews and key studies. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(4), 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4

Oswald, A. J., Proto, E., & Sgroi, D. (2015). Happiness and productivity. Journal of Labor Economics, 33(4), 789–822. https://doi.org/10.1086/681096

Panova, T., & Carbonell, X. (2018). Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(2), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.49

Poushter, J., Bishop, C., & Chwe, H. (2018). Social media use continues to rise in developing countries but plateaus across developed ones. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2018/06/19/social-media-use-continues-to-rise-in-developing-countries-but-plateaus-across-developed-ones/

Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., & Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1841–1848. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHB.2013.02.014

Raudlam, M. (2018). Ilmajäämishirmu (FoMO) küsimustiku adapteerimine ja valideerimine eesti keelde [Adaptation and validation of Estonian fear of missiong out (FoMO) scale; Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia].

Reer, F., Tang, W. Y., & Quandt, T. (2019). Psychosocial well-being and social media engagement: The mediating roles of social comparison orientation and fear of missing out. New Media & Society, 21(7), 1486–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818823719

Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02

Rotondi, V., Stanca, L., & Tomasuolo, M. (2017). Connecting alone: Smartphone use, quality of social interactions and well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 63, 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2017.09.001

Rozgonjuk, D., Kattago, M., & Täht, K. (2018). Social media use in lectures mediates the relationship between procrastination and problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 89, 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.003

Rozgonjuk, D., Levine, J. C., Hall, B. J., & Elhai, J. D. (2018). The association between problematic smartphone use, depression and anxiety symptom severity, and objectively measured smartphone use over one week. Computers in Human Behavior, 87, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.019

Rozgonjuk, D., Rosenvald, V., Janno, S., & Täht, K. (2016). Developing a shorter version of the Estonian Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale (E-SAPS18). Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 10(4), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2016-4-4

Rozgonjuk, D., Saal, K., & Täht, K. (2018). Problematic smartphone use, deep and surface approaches to learning, and social media use in lecture. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(1), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15010092

Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHB.2015.12.045

Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338

Scott, H., & Woods, H. C. (2018). Fear of missing out and sleep: Cognitive behavioural factors in adolescents’ nighttime social media use. Journal of Adolescence, 68, 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.009

Smetaniuk, P. (2014). A preliminary investigation into the prevalence and prediction of problematic cell phone use. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 3(1), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.3.2014.004

Statistics Estonia. (2018). Eesti statistika kvartalikiri. 2/18. Quarterlybulletin of statistics Estonia. https://www.stat.ee/publication-2018_quarterly-bulletin-of-statistics-estonia-2-18

Takahashi, D. (2018, September 11). Newzoo: Smartphone users will top 3 billion in 2018, hit 3.8 billion by 2021. Venture Beat. https://venturebeat.com/2018/09/11/newzoo-smartphone-users-will-top-3-billion-in-2018-hit-3-8-billion-by-2021/

Tandoc, E. C. Jr., Ferrucci, P., & Duffy, M. (2015). Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students: Is facebooking depressing? Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.053

Thomée, S., Härenstam, A., & Hagberg, M. (2011). Mobile phone use and stress, sleep disturbances, and symptoms of depression among young adults - A prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health, 11, Article 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-66

Tsai, H.-y. S., Hsu, P.-J., Chang, C.-L., Huang, C.-C., Ho, H.-F., & LaRose, R. (2019). High tension lines: Negative social exchange and psychological well-being in the context of instant messaging. Computers in Human Behavior, 93, 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.034

Twenge, J. M. (2019). Stop debating whether too much smartphone time can hurt teens, and start protecting them. Time. https://time.com/collection/davos-2020-mental-health/5555737/smartphone-mental-health-teens/

Vahedi, Z., & Saiphoo, A. (2018). The association between smartphone use, stress, and anxiety: A meta-analytic review. Stress and Health, 34(3), 347–358. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2805

Vanden Abeele, M. M. P., Antheunis, M. L., & Schouten, A. P. (2016). The effect of mobile messaging during a conversation on impression formation and interaction quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 562–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.04.005

Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., Ybarra, O., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057

Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well-being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033

Wegmann, E., Oberst, U., Stodt, B., & Brand, M. (2017). Online-specific fear of missing out and Internet-use expectancies contribute to symptoms of Internet-communication disorder. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.04.001

Wolniewicz, C. A., Rozgonjuk, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2020). Boredom proneness and fear of missing out mediate relations between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.159

Wolniewicz, C. A., Tiamiyu, M. F., Weeks, J. W., & Elhai, J. D. (2018). Problematic smartphone use and relations with negative affect, fear of missing out, and fear of negative and positive evaluation. Psychiatry Research, 262, 618–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.058

World Health Organization. (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311664

World Medical Association. (2013). World Medical Association declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053

Xie, X., Wang, Y., Wang, P., Zhao, F., & Lei, L. (2018). Basic psychological needs satisfaction and fear of missing out: Friend support moderated the mediating effect of individual relative deprivation. Psychiatry Research, 268, 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.07.025

Metrics

5869

Views

2201

PDF views