Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace

Towards a typology of online users in response to incivility: A latent profile analysis across six countries

2026-03-16T11:26:09+01:00

Incivility is pervasive in the online communication landscape and has been linked to harmful consequences for individuals and the quality of public discourse. Understanding how people engage with online incivility is crucial for identifying mechanisms that may reinforce or mitigate such interactions. Although previous research investigated how incivility is experienced in different social roles such as victims, bystanders and perpetrators, most studies have examined these roles separately rather than analyzing how experiences, behaviors and attitudes toward incivility co-occur within individuals. To systematically identify and distinguish patterns of behaviors, experiences and attitudes associated with incivility, a Latent Profile Analysis was carried out, using a large-scale data set (N = 4,555) surveying young adults aged 18 to 26 (M = 21.69, SD = 2.24) from six countries (US, UK, Spain, Poland, France, Finland). Our results indicate that five profiles or types of users can be distinguished. Individuals are categorized as: perpetrator-victims; uninvolved; observers; defenders; tolerators. Additional analyses suggest that moral emotions vary systematically between these profiles. While perpetrator-victims report more pride, hate and guilt emotions when encountering incivility than any other profile, defenders indicate higher degrees of shame. By identifying distinct patterns of involvement in online incivility and their associated emotional responses, the findings provide insights into the psychological dynamics underlying uncivil online interactions and highlight potential targets for preventive interventions and future research.

“What can I do as somebody who only knows her through the internet?”: An interview study on the role bystanders play when people make suicidal disclosures on social media

2025-12-01T14:56:14+01:00

Evidence suggests that lay persons can play an important role in suicide prevention. Whilst recent research has focused on the role bystanders play when people are at risk of suicide in physical environments, few studies have considered what happens when someone makes a suicidal disclosure on social media. The current study explored how bystanders respond when exposed to suicidal ideation online and what motivates this response. Thirteen UK adults aged 19 to 40 (M = 24.62, SD = 7.33) who had been a bystander at least once when someone had made a suicidal disclosure online were interviewed. Twelve identified as women, one as a man. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we generated five themes: 1) Questioning authenticity of online disclosures, 2) Distance and diffusion of responsibility, 3) Limitations of bystander support, 4) Acting with urgency and on instinct and 5) The Emotional Toll of Witnessing Suicidal Disclosures. Findings highlight the need to challenge doubt over authenticity around online disclosures, and the importance of guidelines to ensure the safety of all involved.

A comparative study on online victimization perceptions (cyberbullying, dating violence, and sexual harassment) and psychological symptoms in sexual and gender minority youth

2026-01-16T15:01:35+01:00

Experiencing worry or perceiving risks in online environments can be linked to undesirable psychological and social outcomes, potentially incrementing the unique challenges that sexual and gender minority (SGM) youths may face in online environments. The purpose of this study is to examine differential perceptions of the frequency of worry about and perceived risk of online victimization and psychological symptoms between sexual and gender minority youths and their non-sexual and gender minority counterparts. This is a cross-sectional study conducted between 2022 and 2023. The sample of 824 Spanish youths was composed by 48.3% females, 49.5% males and 1.8% gender non-binary, aged between 12 and 18 years old (M = 14.53, SD = 1.48). Participants responded to questionnaires based on validated tools to capture the perceived risk and the frequency of worry about three forms of online victimization (cyberbullying, dating violence, and sexual harassment), as well as psychological symptoms (Symptom Checklist-90-R). The data were analysed using one-way and two-way multivariate analysis of variance. The results showed that sexual and gender minority youth reported higher perceptions of risk and worry in relation to online victimization. On the other hand, gender minority participants were found to have significantly elevated levels in all the psychological symptom domains under study. Our results underscore the relevance of understanding psychological correlates in order to develop inclusive interventions and prevention programs addressing SGM-specific online safety concerns.

Framing adolescent sexting: How media discourses influence parents’ attitudes and practices towards sexting

2026-03-04T10:16:21+01:00

In recent years, adolescent sexting has garnered popular media attention that often frames it as a new societal concern for the youth, heightening parents’ worries. While a risk-focused, deviance discourse emphasizes the dangers of sexting, an alternative normalcy discourse suggests that it can be part of adolescents’ sexual development and intimate communication. However, little is known about how different media portrayals of sexting shape parental responses. To address this gap, this experimental study examined the effect of a normalcy vs. a deviance discourse on parents’ attitudes and intended practices towards sexting. We examined effects on both positive (i.e., autonomy-supportive mediation, trust) and negative parenting practices (i.e., internet control, controlling mediation, overprotection). Additionally, we investigated the moderating role of adolescents’ gender, parents’ perceived pressure to be a perfect parent, and parents’ traditional values. The pre-registered study included 312 French-speaking Belgian parents (48.30% mothers) of adolescents (M_age = 16.73, 48% girls). Exposure to a normalcy discourse predicted more positive parental attitudes toward sexting, while specifically for parents experiencing higher pressure to be a perfect parent, exposure to a normalcy discourse elicited significantly lower levels of negative parenting practices. Parents with stronger traditional beliefs reported more negative parenting practices, regardless of the media discourse, while no significant differences emerged between parents of boys and parents of girls. These findings reveal the potential of more nuanced media representations of teen sexuality in shaping parents’ responses to adolescent sexting, underscoring the role of parents’ perceived pressures and traditional values.

Intrinsic and extrinsic social comparisons in online and offline contexts: An ecological momentary assessment study of associations with wellbeing

2026-03-24T10:15:51+01:00

Whilst online social comparisons have been linked to wellbeing, little is known about the impact of comparison dimensions. Drawing on Goal Contents Theory (within self-determination theory), we used Ecological Momentary Assessment to explore dynamic associations between online and offline (upward) social comparisons across intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions in 114 Chinese undergraduates, with data sampled five times per day for 21 days. Using network analysis, contemporaneous and temporal networks were estimated. Counter to our predictions, extrinsic comparisons (e.g., comparisons of wealth) were not associated with poorer wellbeing; in fact, there was evidence for a protective effect of online extrinsic comparisons, specifically, increases in positive affect and decreases in loneliness. The results were also potentially consistent with a two-step model of social comparisons, in which benefits or reduced harm dominate with a temporal lag. Future studies should explore the individual, technological and cultural factors that determine the balance of harms and benefits arising from online comparisons.

Social network usage nature fosters youth sense of identity and life satisfaction: A moderated mediation model analysis

2026-04-27T12:38:09+02:00

Adolescents’ use of social networking services or sites (SNSs) exhibits complex associations with users’ identity and life satisfaction. The present study examined how the social and entertainment functions of SNS influence adolescents’ life satisfaction through identity synthesis and identity confusion, potentially moderated by self-esteem. Cross-sectional data from 1,817 adolescents were analyzed using the Social Networking Activity Intensity Scale (SNAIS), the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES). Mediation analyses revealed a dual pathway: both the social and entertainment functions of SNS facilitated the youths’ identity synthesis, indirectly enhancing their life satisfaction. However, moderated mediation analyses showed that their self-esteem influenced the effect of social function use on identity confusion, among adolescents with low self-esteem. Alternative models were tested and supported the view that self-esteem functions as a buffer against the adverse effects of SNS use on identity, rather than directly influencing SNS use intensity. The study advances a model integrating functional and motivational dimensions to explain the divergent psychosocial outcomes of SNS use, mediated by identity development, with detrimental effects concentrated among adolescents with low self-esteem. The findings suggest that tailored interventions promoting mindful social engagement may support identity synthesis and mitigate identity confusion among vulnerable individuals. Future research should employ multidimensional and longitudinal designs to disentangle the behavioral and motivational aspects of SNS use and clarify the temporal dynamics of identity development.

Subtle cues, major shifts: Eye-tracking insights on how fear and humor legitimize hostility on social media

2025-10-23T15:18:16+02:00

Expressions of hostility are widespread online, occurring not only in explicit but even more so in implicit forms. In this study, we trace the subtle yet lasting harmful potential of two prevalent implicit forms of online hostility—fear speech and derogatory humor—by examining their perceived acceptability and legitimacy. We argue that both forms are more compatible with mainstream discourse than explicit hate and function as manifestations of symbolic violence, providing justifications that legitimize hostility and normalize extreme positions. In an experimental study with eye-tracking measures (N = 141) among predominantly young social media users in Germany (age range: 18-65; M = 23.33, SD = 8.02), we examined users’ attention to and perception of fear speech and derogatory humor on social media compared to explicit hostility. The results reveal that fear speech and derogatory humor attract similar or even greater attention than explicit hostility but differ in perception: both increase acceptance, yet fear speech elicits a heightened perceived potential to incite violence. Our findings provide insights into subtle legitimization processes and highlight broader implications for the normalization of extreme viewpoints.

Algorithm-mediated social learning and social appearance anxiety in China: Predictors, mediating mechanism, and contextual factors

2025-09-01T14:24:58+02:00

Social appearance anxiety has become an increasingly severe social issue, particularly among women, because of the huge number of beautified photos on social media that perpetuate unrealistic appearance ideals. This has been aggravated by the content curation algorithms of social media that continuously push highly similar content to users. Through the lens of algorithm-mediated social learning and the Tripartite Influence Model, this study revealed the roles of algorithm-mediated image-based social media use and appearance talk in predicting users’ social appearance anxiety and further explicated the nuances in the underlying mechanism as well as contextual factors. Through a survey conducted among female RedNote users in three Chinese cities representing different Tiers in diverse geographic locations (N = 1,234, age: M = 29.14, SD = 7.60,
range = 18–65), we found that (1) passive social media use, including general use intensity and viewing appearance-related content, was positively associated with social appearance anxiety, while active social media use was not; (2) internalization mediated the relationship between users’ passive social media use and their appearance anxiety; (3) appearance talk was linked to appearance anxiety via internalization; and (4) some of the above relationships were moderated by the social context where the participants resided. These findings offer insights into users’ interactions with algorithm-mediated image-based platforms and users’ cognition and behavior regarding psychological well-being.

Beautifully diverse? Self-representations and diversity preferences in avatar-mediated virtual environments

2026-01-12T10:13:26+01:00

While online platforms increasingly prioritize diversity by offering extensive avatar customization options, it remains unclear how the avatar features that users are attracted to impact their objective diversity and whether perceived avatar diversity raises user engagement. We conducted two studies using a simulated avatar customization website to examine how user customization of avatars impacts each feature’s objective diversity. Further, drawing from the hyperpersonal model and aesthetic appreciation theory, we present users with groups of avatars that varied in levels of perceived attractiveness and diversity and assess their likelihoods of joining the platform. Study 1 analyzed 136 majority White participants (age range: 21 – 63 years; M = 37.4, SD = 10.8; 49.3% female, 47.8% male, 0.7% non-binary or third gender; 2.2% missing), and study 2 analyzed 128 non-White participants (age range: 21 – 65 years; M = 35.2, SD = 10.2; 47.7% female, 47.7% male; 4.7% missing). The results revealed two types of avatar features that were sample-dependent: (1) aesthetically-normative features, which align with widely accepted attractiveness norms, reduce objective diversity; and (2) aesthetically-expressive features, which allow creative self-expression, increase objective diversity. Regardless of the sample demographic, perceived avatar diversity amplified the positive effect of attractive avatars on users’ likelihood of joining the platform. This research demonstrates the utility of integrating the hyperpersonal model and aesthetic appreciation theory in theorizing the interaction between perceived avatar attractiveness and diversity on user engagement. It also uncovers a socio-technical feedback loop by studying objective and perceived diversity simultaneously. Actionable insights are provided to address the ethical implications of our findings.

The associations of relatedness need frustration and socioeconomic status with youth perfectionistic self-presentation on social media: The mediating role of social comparison

2026-03-23T16:32:41+01:00

The phenomenon of online perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) poses significant risks for young people, contributing to heightened anxiety, depression, and social isolation as individuals strive to project idealized versions of themselves on social media. This pressure to conform to unrealistic standards often leads to detrimental psychological outcomes, necessitating an understanding of the factors that drive such behaviors. This study examines the relationship between relatedness need frustration (RNF)—a psychological state arising from feelings of social exclusion or disconnection—and online PSP among college students, alongside the moderating effect of family socioeconomic status (SES) and the mediating role of social comparison on social media. Utilizing a sample of 1,924 college students aged 17 to 26 years (M = 18.59, SD = 0.75, 65% females), we assessed RNF, PSP, social comparison on social media, SES, and demographic information through questionnaires. The results revealed that (a) RNF was positively associated with online PSP; (b) SES moderates the relationship between RNF and PSP, with individuals from low and average SES families exhibiting a significant positive correlation between RNF and PSP, while those from high SES families do not; (c) the moderating effect of SES occurs through the mediating process of social comparison. These findings highlight the psychological mechanisms underlying unhealthy self-presentation behaviors on social media and emphasize the need to address socioeconomic disparities in mental health interventions, promoting healthier social media engagement among youth.

Digital piracy through the lens of moral intensity and risk perception: A cross-cultural perspective

2025-10-13T15:43:36+02:00

This study examines the psychological mechanisms underlying digital piracy and proposes a framework that considers the perception of potential negative consequences for the individual (personal risk) and for society (moral intensity) as key factors associated with piracy behavior and rationalization. The conceptual model is tested using online survey data from two online panel samples of adults in the US (n = 625, age range = [18, 92], M = 42.44, SD = 16.43) and Slovenia (n = 514, age range = [18, 65], M = 43.51, SD = 13.14). The multi-group analysis indicates that perceived moral intensity is related to both lower participation in digital piracy and lower rationalization of this behavior in both countries. Furthermore, perceived personal risk is linked with lower likelihood of having ever engaged in piracy, but it is not significantly associated with either frequency of piracy behavior or rationalization for those who have engaged in digital piracy at least once in either country. This suggests that concern for individual consequences is not a deciding factor in determining frequency of piracy. The results also show that engaging in digital piracy is associated with cognitive rationalization strategies and with greater normalization of such behavior. These findings highlight the interplay between perceptions of potential negative consequences, digital piracy behavior, and rationalization and provide a basis for practical implications, particularly for marketers in the online entertainment industry.

A new look at the relationship between the gamer and the game character: An exploratory study of internal dialogical activity

2026-03-23T08:26:34+01:00

The present study explores internal dialogues between gamers and game characters as a form of extended gaming engagement linking direct (in-game) and indirect (post-game) involvement. Drawing on Dialogical Self Theory, we conceptualize game characters as potential internal interlocutors that may remain psychologically active beyond gameplay. The analysis was based on interview data collected from 69 gamers, who collectively reported playing 132 games and described experiences involving internal dialogues with 158 game characters. A qualitative analysis examined the contexts in which such dialogues occur, their emotional dynamics, perceived importance, underlying motivations, and associated benefits. The findings indicate that internal dialogues occur predominantly outside gameplay, are often initiated in the context of negative affect and followed by regulatory outcomes, and are perceived as meaningful by a substantial proportion of participants. Two primary functional orientations of dialoguing were identified: personal development and game experience enhancement. To further interpret these patterns, a complementary quantitative analysis examined the relationship between dialogue context and motivational categories. The results reveal the role of internal dialogues with game characters in making the boundaries between real and virtual worlds more permeable, and provide a valuable incentive for investigating the processes related to self-reflection and meaning-making in digital environments.